Pygmalion and the Student: Age and Classroom Differences in Children's Awareness of Teacher Expectations

Abstract

This study explores age and classroom differences in children's awareness of teacher expectations and in the relation between awareness and self-expectations. In a sample of 579 children and their teachers in 30 first- (6-7-year-olds), third- (8-9-year-olds), and fifth-grade (10-11-year-olds) classrooms, assessed in the fall, younger children were found to be less accurate than fifth graders in predicting teacher expectations and in reporting differential patterns in their own interactions with the teacher. Yet first graders identified classroom differences in the degree of differential teacher treatment toward high and low achievers that were associated with differences in the expectations that high and low teacher-expectancy students reported for themselves. Fifth graders appeared more likely than younger children to mirror teacher expectancies in their self-descriptions regardless of the degree of differential treatment reported in the classroom environment.

The Development and Consequences of Stereotype Consciousness in Middle Childhood

“…These theories would thus predict that children will first develop the ability to infer an individual's stereotype and then become aware of broadly held stereotypes. Other research suggests that social context affects children's developing beliefs about themselves (Stipek & Daniels, 1988) and others (Weinstein, Marshall, Sharp, & Botkin, 1987). With regard to children's beliefs about others' stereotypes, research on ethnic minority children's developmental competence (Garcia Coll et al, 1996), ethnic identity development (Phinney & Chavira, 1995;Phinney & Cobb, 1996;Tatum, 1997), and racial socialization (Bowman & Howard, 1985;Miller & MacIntosh, 1999;Sanders, 1997) suggests that for children from stigmatized groups, the social context of stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination may cause earlier awareness of broadly held stereotypes, perhaps through direct teaching, without any requirement that the child be able to infer an individual's stereotype.…”

“…Children's perceptions of teacher expectancy behavior play an important role in the unfolding of expectancy effects. As early as first grade, children are aware of teacher expectations (Babad, 1998;Weinstein et al, 1987), and the magnitude of teacher expectancy effects is higher in classrooms in which children perceive high degrees of differential teacher treatment (Brattesani, Weinstein, & Marshall, 1984;Kuklinski & Weinstein, 2001). Furthermore, children from stigmatized groups are often faced with low expectations (Rist, 1973), even when accounting for prior achievement (Baron, Tom, & Cooper, 1985;Dusek & Joseph, 1983;Hall, Merkel, Howe, & Naderman, 1986;Moore & Johnson, 1983).…”

Effect of peer nominations of teacher–student support at individual and classroom levels on social and academic outcomes

“…According to social referencing theory (Hughes et al, 2001), children are aware of teachers’ differential interactions with students and use this information in forming judgments of children’s competencies and likeability. Even young children are aware of teachers’ differential interactions with students and use this information to make accurate inferences regarding teachers’ attitudes toward and liking for students (Babad, 1993; Birch, 1997; Kuklinski & Weinstein, 2001; Weinstein, Marshall, Sharp, & Botkin, 1987). Both experimental (Retish, 1973; White & Kistner, 1992; White, Sherman, & Jones, 1996) and naturalistic studies (Ladd, Birch, & Buhs, 1999; Taylor, 1989; Taylor & Trickett, 1989) support this premise.…”

Evidence of convergent and discriminant validity of child, teacher, and peer reports of teacher–student support.

“…Our decision to use classmates as the third source on teacher-student support and child conflict is based on the reasoning that classmates have opportunities to witness the teacher’s interactions with each student in the class for several hours a day over an extended period of time. By third grade, peers are reliable reporters of both student characteristics (Realmuto, August, Sieler, & Pessoa-Brandao, 1997) and teacher differential behaviors toward students (Weinstein, Marshall, Sharp, & Botkin, 1987). Because peer sociometric ratings are based on perceptions of multiple raters, they may be less susceptible to rater-specific biases, thus evincing higher trait variance than teacher or child reports (Terry, 2000).…”