Putting gender into context: An interactive model of gender-related behavior.

Abstract

A model that describes conditions influencing the display of gender-related behavior is presented as a supplement to existent models of sex differences. Whereas many previous models stress the importance of distal factors, our model emphasizes the degree to which gender-related behavior is variable, proximally caused, and context dependent. More specifically, we propose that gender-related behaviore are influenced by the expectations of perceivers, self-systems of the target, and situational cues. This model of gender-related behavior builds on theory and data in the areas of (a) expectancy confirmation processes and (b) self-verification and self-presentation strategies. Support for the model is presented, and suggestions are offered for its future development.Are men and women different, and if so, why? These seemingly simple questions have proved remarkably resistant to satisfactory answers, despite a long tradition of attempts. Investigators of some eras have emphasized differences between women and men, whereas those of other eras have argued for the essential similarity of the sexes. For example, in recent years one can observe a minimization of sex differences in the benchmark work of Maccoby and Jacklin (1974) and a reendorsement of sex differences in the subsequent work of Gilligan (1982), Eagly (1987), and others. Proponents of both views have had problems. Those who predict stable sex differences have had trouble accounting for the often limited ability of sex to predict behavior and for a variability that sometimes appears random.The order of authorship for this article was determined alphabetically and hence is arbitrary. The contributions of both authors are equivalent and inseparable.Portions of this article were developed while Kay Deaux was a Fellow at the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences, where support was provided in part by the John D. and Catherine T. McArthur Foundation. Additional support was provided by Grants BNS-8217313 and BNS-8604993 from the National Science Foundation to Kay Deaux.Many people have contributed to our thinking in this article. A preliminary version of the model was presented at the Nags Head Conference on Sex and Gender in May 198S, and we thank the members of that conference for their feedback. The members of the Self, Cognition, and Affect Project at the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences provided valuable input and a stimulating context. In addition, we thank the following people for their comments on earlier versions of this article: Richard Ashmore, Nyla Branscombe, Jennifer Crocker, John Darley, Frances Del Boca, Alice Eagly, Russ Fazio, Sam Glucksberg, Tory Higgins, Bill Martin, and Janet Spence.Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Kay Deaux, who is now at City University of New York, Graduate Center, Box 325, 33 West 42 Street, New York, New York 10036-8099 or to Brenda Major, Department of Psychology, Park Hall, State University of New York at Buffalo, Amherst, New York 14260.Those who argue that ...

The contingent smile: A meta-analysis of sex differences in smiling.

“…This latter finding is particularly notable in light of the idea that some roles are clearly gendered and that one might therefore expect larger sex differences. For example, gender-in-context theorizing (Deaux & Major, 1987) might lead one to expect that caretaking would be more strongly linked with women's roles and hence be associated with larger sex differences in expressive behavior. Such was not the case here.…”

Sex differences in cooperation: A meta-analytic review of social dilemmas.

“…Women also self-report greater importance of universalism values than men, which suggests they extend concern to others beyond close relationships (Schwartz & Rubel, 2005). Although the sociocultural view suggests a main effect of sex on cooperation, gender role stereotypes may be more or less activated in specific social contexts, and so sex differences may only appear within these contexts (Deaux & Major, 1987). Thus, we can examine the implications of this perspective for context-dependent sex differences in cooperation.…”

“…A sociocultural perspective suggests sex differences may be more pronounced in contexts when gender stereotypes are activated (Deaux & Major, 1987). Prior research has found that gender stereotypes are more activated while interacting with an opposite-sex partner (Hogg & Turner, 1987;Skrypnek & Snyder, 1982).…”

“…Men and women may conform to these gender stereotypes to avoid being negatively evaluated by others (Costrich, Feinstein, Kidder, Marecek, & Pascale, 1975). Because women are perceived to be more cooperative than men (e.g., Eagly & Steffen, 1984), this stereotype may especially influence women to be more coopera-tive than men while interacting with an opposite-sex partner, compared to a same-sex partner (Deaux & Major, 1987). Thus, women are expected to be even more cooperative than men in mixed-sex (vs. same-sex) groups.…”

Gender Positions and High School Students’ Attainment in Local Geometry

“…Scholars have attempted to explain attributes that contribute for gender difference in mathematics learning and achievement. Two views prevail with regard to gender difference in mathematics learning: (a) one that reflects genetically rooted sex difference in math ability (Benbow & Stanley, 1983) and (b) the other that reveals the difference as gender-role socialization and/ or stereotype threat (Eccles, 1987;Fennema & Sherman, 1987;Levine & Orbsteub, 1983;Deaux & Major, 1987;Spencer, Steele & Quinn, 1999). Studies have challenged the first view that gender difference in mathematics is, due to the genetically rooted sex difference in math ability.…”