Public Opinions About Paying College Athletes and Athletes Protesting During the National Anthem

Abstract

Drawing on insights from Critical Race Theory and framing theory, as well as previous research, this study ties together and analyzes public opinions about two racialized and politicized sports-related issues: (1) the financial compensation of college athletes, and (2) athlete protests during the national anthem. Consequently, we highlight racial/ethnic identities, racial attitudes, and political identities as predictors of these public opinions. Data for our analyses come from a nationally representative sample of U.S. adults who were surveyed just prior to the 2016 presidential election. Descriptive results suggest that well over half of U.S. adults opposed having the NCAA pay college athletes; also, about two-thirds of adults viewed athlete protests during the national anthem as unacceptable. Regression results reveal that Black and Latinx adults were more supportive of paying college athletes and athlete protests during the national anthem than White adults. Other people of color were also more likely than White adults to support paying college athletes. Racial attitudes such as a lack of recognition of racial/ethnic inequalities in education and support for Black Lives Matter also shaped public opinions about these issues in expected ways. Finally, we find that political identities were linked to public opinions about these issues even after accounting for racial/ethnic identities and racial attitudes. Overall, this study documents public opinions about these prominent sports-related issues just prior to the 2016 election of a President who particularly racialized and politicized sports issues. Even then, these sports-related issues had been similarly filtered through both a White racial frame that encourages colorblind racism and a counter frame that promotes antiracist activism. Altogether, the present study offers further evidence of how sports provide cultural terrain for individuals to enact and negotiate racialized and politicized views of sports and society and illustrates how these processes were reflected in public opinions in 2016.

Multiculturalism and Antiracism in Sports? U.S. Public Opinions about Native American Team Names and Mascots and the Use of Hijabs in Sports

“…However, disproportionate criticism, intolerance, and exclusion of racial/ethnic minorities are still prevalent in sporting contexts (Ahmed 2017; Carrington 2010, 2013; Guiliano 2015; Knoester and Ridpath 2021; Knoester et al forthcoming; Thangaraj 2015). Prejudices, misunderstandings, and stereotypes about different racial and ethnic groups are frequently enacted and reified through sports interactions (Allison, Knoester, and Ridpath 2021; Bonilla-Silva, Goar, and Embrick 2006; King 2016; Knoester and Ridpath 2020; Knoester et al forthcoming; Leonard 2017). Relatedly, sports interactions are replete with messages, practices, challenges, and sometimes changes with regard to who is valued, who belongs, and who is excluded in different contexts (Allison et al forthcoming; Carrington 2013; Knoester and Ridpath 2020; Knoester et al forthcoming; Samie and Toffoletti 2018; Strong 2004).…”

“…Prejudices, misunderstandings, and stereotypes about different racial and ethnic groups are frequently enacted and reified through sports interactions (Allison, Knoester, and Ridpath 2021; Bonilla-Silva, Goar, and Embrick 2006; King 2016; Knoester and Ridpath 2020; Knoester et al forthcoming; Leonard 2017). Relatedly, sports interactions are replete with messages, practices, challenges, and sometimes changes with regard to who is valued, who belongs, and who is excluded in different contexts (Allison et al forthcoming; Carrington 2013; Knoester and Ridpath 2020; Knoester et al forthcoming; Samie and Toffoletti 2018; Strong 2004). These processes involve contestations for cultural citizenship.…”

When Kids Hitting Each Other Is Okay: Examining U.S. Adult Support for Youth Tackle Football

“…Since there are fewer opportunities for upward socioeconomic mobility for especially Black individuals compared to Whites, football is seen by many as a uniquely available pathway to upward mobility by way of higher education and economic opportunity. In fact, Black youth are especially likely to be encouraged to play sports, such as football (Allison et al 2018; Harper 2015; Macaulay et al 2019; Allison et al 2021; Semuels 2019; Shakib and Veliz 2012).…”

“…Furthermore, Black individuals—especially parents—have more complicating factors to consider than others given centuries of anti-Black prejudice and discrimination in the U.S. (Allison et al 2018; Foley 1990; Knoester and Ridpath 2021). Football is viewed by many as a positive and meritocratic activity for children to engage in and, on average, Black children appear to have fewer, safe options for extracurricular activities compared to White children (Kelly 2013; Allison et al 2021; Semuels 2019). Thus, while parents generally seek activities for their children that have the potential to afford them socioeconomic mobility and other positive outcomes, Black individuals especially may be drawn to football (Tompsett and Knoester 2021; Shakib and Veliz 2012).…”

“…Moreover, stigma and backlash may be directed at those who challenge the status quo. Thus, social change, and even changes in public opinions, are not easy to achieve (Bachynski 2019; Berger and Luckmann 1966; Allison, Knoester, and Ridpath 2021; Knoester and Ridpath 2021; Knoester and Rockhill 2021; Knoester, Ridpath, and Allison 2021). For example, criticisms of proposed tackling restrictions in youth football aimed at mitigating its health risks seem to be connected to deeply held passions about the sport uniquely and prominently building toughness, character, and a particularly American form of masculinity.…”