Public Knowledge and Perception of Drinking Water Quality and Its Health Implications: An Example from the Makueni County, South-Eastern Kenya

Abstract

Due to the semi-arid nature of Makueni County in South-Eastern Kenya, there is a high dependence on groundwater resources for domestic use. Reliance on this source of potable water may have health implications for the population, given the presence of several naturally occurring and potentially harmful elements reported from aquifer source rocks, soil, and water in the area. A survey involving questionnaires and focus group discussions (FGDs) was conducted with 115 individuals to determine the local population’s knowledge, attitude, and perceptions of their drinking water quality and its health impacts. The results show that most respondents (67%) preferred piped water because it was pre-treated and not saline. Only 29% of the respondents were very satisfied with the taste of their drinking water, while the rest complained about varying salinity levels, ranging from slightly salty to very salty. This low satisfaction might have influenced the low daily drinking water consumption (1–2 L) by most respondents. Health issues reported by many (43%) respondents in the area include diarrhoea and gastrointestinal upsets, which may be associated with the saline nature of the drinking water. Elevated fluoride (F−) in the local groundwater was reported, and the health effects remain a concern. Although 91% knew someone with dental fluorosis, 53% did not know the deleterious effects of high F− in drinking water. Most respondents (59%) associated the salty nature of the water with dental fluorosis, and as a result, 48% avoided drinking the salty water to prevent the condition. Despite the high prevalence and known psycho-social effects, most people did not perceive dental fluorosis as a severe health threat. The increased health risks associated with high salinity and high F− in drinking water in Makueni County are poorly understood by most residents, regardless of their education, gender, or age. This warrants an immediate public health education programme and detailed epidemiological studies to determine all the health effects associated with naturally occurring, potentially harmful elements in groundwater in the area.

Does Individuals’ Perception of Wastewater Pollution Decrease Their Self-Rated Health? Evidence from China

“…For one, most of China’s leading public survey data that is supported by the Chinese central government (e.g., the Chinese General Social Survey) mainly contain 10,000 or fewer observations, and seldom cover data from all the autonomous regions, especially Tibet. At the same time, many social science studies and published research on similar topics employ original survey data with samples that cover dozens, or hundreds of participants [ 13 , 14 , 19 , 36 , 38 , 39 ]. Therefore, it is believed that the observations that the surveys collected are of research value, and the sample could provide enough observations to support the analytical methods employed in the study.…”

“…Therefore, as lay persons, they may not tell exactly right judgements in distinguishing the type of wastewater, as well as specific water quality. However, as has been argued in existing literature, the policymakers should see the outcomes as an important reference in environmental policy implantations [ 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 ]. Figure 2 and Figure 3 show the typically perceived wastewater and water pollution in the surveys.…”

“…At the same time, a number of studies have explored the direct relationship between water pollution and personal health from the perspective of social science, such as economics and sociology [ 9 , 10 , 11 ]. Some of the literature particularly focuses on the correlation of individual perception of water quality (pollution, taste, and color) and the related health status from a psychological angle [ 12 , 13 , 14 ]. Scholars have identified the concept of “perception of risk” to examine individuals’ judgements when they are asked to characterize and evaluate hazardous activities and technologies.…”

Characteristics and mechanism of spatial-temporal changes of fluorosis in typical high fluoride areas of Northwest China over the past 40 years

“…The management and operation of the water-improving project also signi cantly affect the drinking water quality, low normal operation rate and insu cient water source monitoring will both lead to poor water-improving effect, which is particularly prominent in China ( Tianjin) and found that only 21 projects were in normal operation, of which only 14 met the expectation of water improvement. In addition, people's knowledge of the hazard of uoride drinking water and their satisfaction with the quality of drinking water will have an impact on drinking habits and public safety (Gevera et al 2022).…”

Public Perception of Drinking Water Quality in Bekasi City, Indonesia

“…Previous research, which evaluated perceptions of drinking water quality between private wells consumer and public supplies, suggests that future studies are required to investigate consumer perception of groundwater quality and actual quality measurement (Gevera et al, 2022). Furthermore, consumer perceptions of drinking water quality can provide insights for public policies and service enhancements (Doria, 2010).…”