Psychosocial risk and protective factors associated with perpetration of gender-based violence in a community sample of men in rural KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

Abstract

Background. Rates of gender-based violence (GBV) in South Africa (SA) are among the highest in the world. In societies where social ideals of masculinity encourage male dominance and control over women, gender power imbalances contribute to male perpetration and women's vulnerability. The drivers that cause men to perpetrate GBV and those that lead to HIV overlap and interact in multiple and complex ways. Multiple risk and protective factors for GBV perpetration by males operate interdependently at a number of levels; at the individual level, these include chronic anxiety and depression, which have been shown to lead to risky sexual behaviours. Objectives. (i) To examine psychosocial risk factors (symptoms of anxiety and depression) as well as protective factors (social support and self-esteem) as self-reported by a cohort of males in rural KwaZulu-Natal (KZN) Province, SA; and (ii) to determine whether there are differences in anxiety, depression, social support and self-esteem between perpetrators and non-perpetrators. Methods. A cross-sectional study using quasi-probability cluster sampling of 13 of 28 wards in Harry Gwala District, KZN. Participants were then randomly chosen from each ward proportionate to size. Results. The participants were relatively young (median age 22 years); over half were schoolgoers, and 91.3% had never married. Over 43% of the sample reported clinical levels of anxiety and depressive symptoms on the Brief Symptom Inventory. Rates of GBV perpetration were 60.9%, 23.6% and 10.0% for psychological abuse, non-sexual physical violence and sexual violence, respectively. GBV perpetration was associated with higher depression, higher anxiety, lower self-esteem and lower social support. Conclusions. Interventions to address GBV need to take modifiable individual-level factors into account.

Perpetration of intimate partner violence and mental health outcomes: sex- and gender-disaggregated associations among adolescents and young adults in Nigeria

“…The limited LMIC studies on gender-based violence (GBV) more broadly (perpetrated by both intimate partners and non-partners), generally align with findings from upper income countries, demonstrating high rates of adverse mental health among male perpetrators [10][11][12][13]. However, all of these studies focus on male perpetrators, few use population-based sampling methods, none are nationally representative, and none specifically focus on IPV.…”

Re-Positioning Social Work in the Agenda to Deal With Violence Against Women and South Africa’s Triple Challenges

“…This has been observed in many parts of South Africa, which shares common socio-cultural features with other African countries (Zungu et al, 2010). Such social ideas of masculinity encourage male dominance, control over women and gender power imbalances and contribute to male perpetration of, and women's vulnerability to, violence (Ngoma et al, 2016(Ngoma et al, :1211. Power grants privileges to certain groups of people while denying them to others; privileged groups such as men can discriminate against and commit violence against non-privileged groups such as women (Seabi, 2009:23).…”

“…VAW is inherently linked to gender roles, stereotypes, notions of masculinity and patriarchal values (World Health Organization (WHO), 2009). Most organisations, both public and private, including academics and civil society, recognise that authenticating the extent of VAW and producing reliable comparative data to guide policy and monitor progress have been difficult (Devries, Mak, García-Moreno, Petzold, Child, Falder, Lim, Bacchus, Engel, Rosenfeld, Pallitto, Vos, Abrahams & Watts, 2013:1527Ngoma, Fergus, Jeeves & Rolly, 2016:1211. Except for research conducted independently by departments, organisations and researchers, there is a paucity of statistics from nationally representative population-based surveys on VAW in South Africa.…”

“…The number of murders of women by intimate partners is six times higher than the global average (Seedat, Van Niekerk, Suffla & Ratele, 2009). A study conducted by Ngoma, Fergus, Jeeves & Rolly (2016:1213 based on a sample of 450 participants demonstrated that 23.6% of women experienced sexual physical violence or sexual violence (10.0%). Another study by Statistics South Africa (2017) showed that one in every five women older than 18 years has experienced physical violence.…”

Men’s conceptualization of gender-based violence directed to women in Alexandra Township, Johannesburg, South Africa

“…GBV is also associated with mood, anxiety and substance abuse [ 46 ]. A study conducted in rural KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, on the correlation between GBV, psychosocial stress and self-esteem, revealed that the perpetrators also suffered from mental health, such as anxiety and depression, resulting from GBV perpetration [ 47 ]. The study also indicated that 60% of men were involved in psychologically abusing women, which affects the mental health of women [ 47 ].…”