Psychoneuroendocrinology of Stress

Abstract

Developmental psychology is rapidly becoming a neuropsychobiological field concerned with understanding how the genes we are born with, the experiences we have that modify gene expression, and the physiological responses in our brains and bodies all come together to write the story of our lives. Nowhere is the importance of a multilevel, multidisciplinary, genes‐to‐society perspective more apparent than in the study of stress and its role in development. This chapter focuses on a key stress‐mediating system, the hypothalamic‐pituitary‐adrenocortical ( HPA ) axis, its development and regulatory processes, its effects on brain systems involved in emotion and cognition, and its interactions with other stress‐mediating systems. The normative development of the HPA axis is described, along with the role of temperament as a moderator of stress responding and stress effects. The majority of the chapter summarizes evidence that the HPA axis plays a role in the biological embedding of experience during development, including questions about developmental plasticity and developmental programming in relation to poverty, prenatal stress, parental loss, risky family environments, and maltreatment. The role of the HPA axis in developmental psychopathology is also discussed. Future directions and fruitful areas of research are considered with each topic.

Racial/ethnic disparities in cortisol diurnal patterns and affect in adolescence

“…The HPA axis plays an integral role in these processes by mobilizing energy for coping with stressors and modifying the individual’s responses to similar stressors in the future (Gunnar, Doom, & Esposito, 2015; Sapolsky, Romero, & Munck, 2000). The activity of the HPA axis can be characterized along two basic dimensions, basal functioning and reactivity to stressors (Spencer & Deak, 2016).…”

Intimate partner violence indirectly dysregulates child diurnal adrenocortical functioning through positive parenting

“…Constant conflict does not allow the child to sufficiently recover or recuperate from the heightened arousal, sensitizing them to subsequent conflict, and overwhelming emotional and physiological resources (Davies & Cummings, ; Davies, Myers, Cummings, & Heindel, ). When faced with a physical or psychological stressor, the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis activates neurochemical responses initiating with increased corticotropin‐releasing factor levels and ending with the release of cortisol (Gunnar, Doom, & Esposito, ). In addition to acute release in response to a stressor, cortisol is also secreted in a reliable diurnal pattern marked by a steep decline across the day (Smyth, Hucklebridge, Thorn, Evans, & Clow, ).…”

Longitudinal Associations of Sleep Duration, Morning and Evening Cortisol, and BMI During Childhood

“…Cortisol, in turn, influences multiple bodily functions, and is associated with downstream increases in blood glucose levels, insulin resistance, heart rate, and immune system stimulation ( 9 ). By middle childhood, children start to show diurnal cortisol patterns that are similar to adults: cortisol levels typically peak in the morning (cortisol awakening response) and decline throughout the day ( 10 ). There are individual differences in morning and evening cortisol levels and diurnal patterns that reflect a combination of genetic, physical, behavioral, and environmental factors ( 9 , 10 ).…”

“…By middle childhood, children start to show diurnal cortisol patterns that are similar to adults: cortisol levels typically peak in the morning (cortisol awakening response) and decline throughout the day ( 10 ). There are individual differences in morning and evening cortisol levels and diurnal patterns that reflect a combination of genetic, physical, behavioral, and environmental factors ( 9 , 10 ). We focus on middle childhood because the HPA axis undergoes change during this period and thus may be particularly influenced by individual differences in behavior.…”