Psychometric testing: The early years and the MMPI.

Abstract

Table 2.1 -MMPI Scales Validity Scales Clinical Scales L Scale F Scale K Scale Scale 1 (Hypochondriasis) Scale 2 (Depression) Scale 3 (Hysteria) Scale 4 (Psychopathic Deviate) Scale 5 (Masculinity-Femininity) Scale 6 (Paranoia) Scale 7 (Psychasthenia) Scale 8 (Schizophrenia) Scale 9 (Hypomania) Scale 0 (Social Introversion)could omit an item, including carelessness, confusion, and indecisiveness. Occasionally, items are omitted because individuals are uncomfortable admitting information about themselves. Regardless of the reason, the omission of too many items will invalidate the test (Graham, 1993).The L Scale was designed to spot individuals who naively present themselves in an overly favorable light (Meehl & Hathaway, 1946, as cited in Graham, 1993. Patients who have a high L score might have difficulty admitting to even minor flaws. For instance, they would have to report that they read every editorial in the newspaper or that they like everyone they meet. Depending on the degree of the elevation, and on other extratest variables, an elevated L Scale suggests a host of situationally based or long-standing characteristics, including denial, defensiveness, or a lack of insight (Graham, 1993).The F Scale was designed to recognize unusual, deviant, and atypical ways of approaching the MMPI test items (Meehl & Hathaway, 1946, as cited in Graham, 1993. The scale consists of items that fewer than 10% of the adult normal group scored in a specific direction. For example, fewer than 10% of the normal group responded "true" to the statement, "Evil spirits possess me at times." Graham (1993) described three important functions of the F Scale: (a) recognizing abnormal test-taking sets, (b) gauging the severity of psychopathology, and (c) suggesting other clinically relevant information about an individual. An excessively elevated F Scale suggests the possibility of an invalid test, possibly because of a patient's confusion or an attempt to "fake bad." In addition, an elevated score can suggest that a person is seeking the attention of health care providers (Graham, 1993). Generally, the F Scale suggests a person's level of distress or the severity of the psychopathology, with extreme elevations raising the distinct possibility of psychosis.The K Scale was developed to detect individuals who attempt to portray themselves in either an overly favorable or an overly unfavorable manner, but to detect them in a more sophisticated way than that offered by the L Scale (Meehl & Hathaway, 1946, as cited in Graham, 1993. Elevated scores can suggest defensiveness or the ability to cope with stressors. Conversely, lower scores can suggest a perceived inability to manage difficult circumstances or stressors (Graham, 1993). As with all the validity scales, an excessive elevation suggests the possibility of an invalid test.Although the MMPI might not have been able to identify and diagnose individ-