Psychological Effects of Home Confinement and Social Distancing Derived from COVID-19 in the General Population—A Systematic Review

Abstract

(1) Background: Home confinement and social distancing are two of the main public health measures to curb the spread of SARS-Cov-2, which can have harmful consequences on people’s mental health. This systematic review aims to identify the best available scientific evidence on the impact that home confinement and social distancing, derived from the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, have had on the mental health of the general population in terms of depression, stress and anxiety. (2) Methods: A systematic search was conducted on PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science and ScienceDirect between 2 January 2021 and 7 January 2021, in accordance with the recommendations of the PRISMA Declaration. The selection of studies and the evaluation of their methodological quality were performed in pairs, independently and blindly, based on predetermined eligibility criteria. (3) Results: The 26 investigations reviewed were developed in different regions and countries. Factors that are associated with poor mental health were female gender, young ages, having no income and suffering from a previous psychiatric illness. Inadequate management of the pandemic by authorities and a lack or excess of information also contributed to worse mental health. (4) Conclusions: There are groups of people more likely to suffer higher levels of anxiety, depression and stress during the restrictive measures derived from COVID-19.

Role of Nucleocapsid Protein Antigen Detection for Safe End of Isolation of SARS-CoV-2 Infected Patients with Long Persistence of Viral RNA in Respiratory Samples

“…However, as previously mentioned, a problem with RT-PCRbased testing is the risk of long-term positivity in recovered patients without viable virus. Prolonged isolation of these patients has a great importance in terms of social, phycological, and economic consequences [18][19][20][21]. Moreover, these patients, despite being non-contagious, cannot access COVID-free healthcare facilities, and are at risk of re-infection, especially when new virus variants emerge, if admitted to COVID hospital wards.…”

“…To date, the correlation between RT-PCR results with viral cultures and contagiousness remains scarcely investigated [9]. The use of molecular detection of viral RNA implies the risk for many patients to remain hospitalized or isolated for a much longer time than necessary, with important implications for patient management, and also psychological, social, and economic consequences [18][19][20][21]. Therefore, availability of an accurate, rapid, and simple laboratory tool to certify the end of infectivity of SARS-CoV-2-infected patients would have a great impact.…”

Sleep Habits during COVID-19 Confinement: An Exploratory Analysis from Portugal

“…Other studies reveal alarming numbers: 69% of a study participants revealed clinically relevant anxiety, 31% depressive symptoms, and 20% significant post-traumatic stress symptoms [3], 30% of individuals have clinically significant levels of anxiety, depression, and stress [4]. Literature is not always clear on who are the most vulnerable, but it often reports women, young people, unemployed, and patients with prior mental or psychiatric illnesses [5]; another study found that symptoms of anxiety or depression and trauma were predicted by early age, presence of children at home and high estimates of personal risk; higher levels of anxiety and depression were also predicted by low income, loss of income and pre-existing health conditions in self and others, with specific anxiety levels about COVID-19 being Informatics 2021, 8, 51 2 of 17 higher in older participants [6]. A survey concludes that female gender, negative affect, and detachment were associated with higher levels of depression, anxiety, and stress; having an acquaintance infected was associated with increased levels of both depression and stress, whereas a history of stressful situations and medical problems was associated with higher levels of depression and anxiety; having a family member infected associated to higher levels of anxiety and having a family member who had to work outside their domicile associated to higher stress [7].…”

Validation of the Japanese Version of the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale—Revised: A Preliminary Analysis

“…Furthermore, over the last few years, the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic increased the rates of probable depression to two to nine times higher during the second wave than before the COVID-19 pandemic in Japan [ 9 ]. The COVID-19 pandemic is also a major problem for people’s psychological status all over the world, as mentioned in several review articles [ 10 , 11 ]. An accurate assessment of depression severity has become ever more important for its management in the general population.…”