Psychogenic Stress in Hospitalized Dogs: Cross Species Comparisons, Implications for Health Care, and the Challenges of Evaluation

Abstract

Evidence to support the existence of health consequences of psychogenic stress has been documented across a range of domestic species. A general understanding of methods of recognition and means of mitigation of psychogenic stress in hospitalized animals is arguably an important feature of the continuing efforts of clinicians to improve the well-being and health of dogs and other veterinary patients. The intent of this review is to describe, in a variety of species: the physiology of the stress syndrome, with particular attention to the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis; causes and characteristics of psychogenic stress; mechanisms and sequelae of stress-induced immune dysfunction; and other adverse effects of stress on health outcomes. Following that, we describe general aspects of the measurement of stress and the role of physiological measures and behavioral signals that may predict stress in hospitalized animals, specifically focusing on dogs.

A role for classical music in veterinary practice: does exposure to classical music reduce stress in hospitalised dogs?

“…An environment that lacks physical enrichment and sensory stimulation has a significant impact on the behaviour and anxiety levels of confined dogs, and this is further augmented by the negative stress associated with handling, separation from a primary caregiver and a lack of social interaction . The effect of intense and prolonged stress in veterinary patients has been correlated with negative health outcomes such as increased morbidity and mortality, increased susceptibility to infection and slower wound healing, while also amplifying anaesthetic and analgesic requirements . In human patients, classical music has been shown to improve patient outcomes following anaesthetic and surgical interventions by decreasing recovery time, minimising peri‐operative anxiety and enhancing the efficacy of pain management .…”

“…Four of the populations studied were comprised of healthy dogs from kennel and shelter environments, one encompassed family‐owned dogs placed in a confined setting that was not considered to be their usual residence, and one examined both family‐owned and kennel‐housed dogs within a veterinary setting. Although these populations reflect similar circumstances to hospitalised dogs, with participants exposed to factors that initiate negative psychogenic stress such as separation from a primary caregiver, introduction to a novel location and a lack of environmental enrichment, they did not encompass dogs specifically subjected to hospitalisation …”

“…Despite numerous attempts, there is currently no gold standard for objectively and accurately measuring stress in dogs. The multifaceted and complex nature of stress within biological systems prevents any parameter from being an absolute marker of stress . Like humans, animals behave on a spectrum according to their own individual desires and state of existence .…”

“…Like humans, animals behave on a spectrum according to their own individual desires and state of existence . In a species such as the dog, generic measures of physiological stress cannot be used to differentiate between a negative and a positive stress response . An example of this would be when a dog greets their owner; they will respond physiologically with an elevation in blood cortisol, but this does not automatically equate to the dog being in distress .…”

Catestatin, vasostatin, cortisol, and pain assessments in dogs suffering from traumatic bone fractures

“…Although unspecific, these parameters have long been used in studies on pain and stress response in animals, alone or in combination with other parameters [13, 15, 16]. …”