Pseudoscience in the times of crisis: How and why chlorine dioxide consumption became popular in Latin America during the COVID-19 pandemic

Abstract

The COVID-19 pandemic has affected the economic and political landscape of the world (Greer et al., 2020). Low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) have been particularly vulnerable to the effects of the disease (Breevoort et al., 2020; Dahab et al., 2020; Elhadi, et al., 2020; Loayza and Pennings, 2020). In many regions, including Africa and Latin America, the role of traditional media, as well as social media has been important to disseminate information related to disease containment and treatment (Hopman et al., 2020). Yet, these tools have also been used to spread misinformation and support pseudoscientific ideals masked as “miracle cures” for COVID-19 (Malinverni and Brigagão 2020; Oliveira et al., 2020; Pereira et al., 2020).Chlorine dioxide is a disinfectant commonly used to clean medical equipment and treat residual waters (Smith et al., 2001). At high concentrations and non-physiological pH, it has been shown that treating surfaces with chlorine dioxide effectively inhibits microbial and viral activity (Hauchman et al., 1986; Zoffoli et al., 2005). To date, no controlled studies have been done to evaluate the toxicity of this compound in human subjects. However, exposing rats and nonhuman primates to chlorine dioxide resulted in dose-dependent nonchronic toxicity through thyroid suppression (Abdel-Rahman et al., 1984; Bercz et al., 1982; Harrington et al., 1986; Orme et al., 1985), as well as DNA damage and neurotoxicity in the cerebral cortex (Toth et al, 1990). It is therefore understood that chlorine dioxide is not safe for human consumption. In a self-published book, chlorine dioxide proponent Jim Humble has taunted the use of this compound to treat at variety of diseases, ranging from cancer to HIV, calling it “Miracle Mineral Solution” (MMS) (Humble, 2006). More recently, chlorine dioxide has been suggested to be an inexpensive preventive and treatment for COVID-19 (Burela et al., 2020; Galloso, 2020; Karnik-Henry, 2020; Oliveira et al., 2020). Yet, no scientific evidence has ever been provided to support any of these claims (Burela et al., 2020; Galloso, 2020). On the contrary, several studies have reported a series of concerning symptoms due to MMS intoxication (Bathina et al., 2003; Daniel et al., 2014; Hulshof et al., 2019; Lardieri et al., 2020; Li and Lim, 1993; Loh and Shafi, 2014). These studies highlight the importance of caution in adopting unproven therapies, particularly in regions with weak medical systems.Here I use chlorine dioxide as an example of dissemination of pseudoscience in Latin America in the context of COVID-19. I then describe the adoption and manipulation of chlorine dioxide in Bolivia, where it was used by a political party as a tool to destabilize the constitutional government in view of the 2020 presidential elections.

Factors associated with the consumption of chlorine dioxide to prevent and treat COVID-19 in the Peruvian population: a cross-sectional study

“…We have not found studies published in scientific journals that have evaluated the prevalence of chlorine dioxide consumption in other countries. Although a previous study indicated that chlorine dioxide consumption in Peru is high, based on the number of related media articles and blog posts, a prevalence has not been specified [16]. This assumption is in agreement with what we found, and it must be taken into account that the prevalence in our study could be underestimated, given that most of the population evaluated had characteristics in common, such as educational level, urban residence, etc., that make them less susceptible to the consumption of these substances, as has been previously reported [17].…”

Cross-sectional analysis of COVID-19 vaccine intention, perceptions and hesitancy across Latin America and the Caribbean

“…There is a vast culture of self-medication in the LAC region, which is even promoted by communication media. Besides, in countries as Peru and Bolivia, the use of unproven therapies such as chlorine dioxide became relevant, increasing the popularity of extremist anti-vaccine groups [ 46 ]. It is relevant to have community strategies based on scientific information and adapted according to the population group of interest [ 47 , 48 ].…”

Factors Associated With The Consumption Of Chlorine Dioxide To Prevent And Treat COVID-19 In The Peruvian Population

“…We have not found studies published in scienti c journals that have evaluated the prevalence of chlorine dioxide consumption in other countries. Although a previous study indicated that chlorine dioxide consumption in Peru is high, based on the number of related media articles and blog posts, a prevalence has not been speci ed [15].…”