Protective Effects of Grape Seed Oligomeric Proanthocyanidins in IPEC-J2–Escherichia coli/Salmonella Typhimurium Co-Culture

Abstract

Intestinal epithelium provides the largest barrier protecting mammalian species from harmful external factors; however, it can be severely compromised by the presence of bacteria in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. Antibiotics have been widely used for the prevention and treatment of GI bacterial infections, leading to antimicrobial resistance in human and veterinary medicine alike. In order to decrease antibiotic usage, natural substances, such as flavonoids, are investigated to be used as antibiotic alternatives. Proanthocyanidins (PAs) are potential candidates for this purpose owing to their various beneficial effects in humans and animals. In this study, protective effects of grape seed oligomeric proanthocyanidins (GSOPs) were tested in IPEC-J2 porcine intestinal epithelial cells infected with Escherichia coli and Salmonella enterica ser. Typhimurium of swine origin. GSOPs were able to alleviate oxidative stress, inflammation and barrier integrity disruption inflicted by bacteria in the co-culture. Furthermore, GSOPs could decrease the adhesion of both bacteria to IPEC-J2 cells. Based on these observations, GSOPs seem to be promising candidates for the prevention and treatment of gastrointestinal bacterial infections.

Effect of Enterococcus faecium NCIMB 10415 on Gut Barrier Function, Internal Redox State, Proinflammatory Response and Pathogen Inhibition Properties in Porcine Intestinal Epithelial Cells

“…Any other treatment concentrations and treatment times did not cause any significant change in the viability of IPEC-J2 cells as compared to the control. The cytotoxic effect of E. coli and S. Typhimurium were previously tested, the optimal treatment concentrations were found to be 10 6 CFU/mL and the optimal treatment time was set to 1 h [ 1 ].…”

“…Bacterial infections were performed with E. coli or S. Typhimurium at a concentration of 10 6 CFU/mL. The applied tolerable pathogen concentration was based on our previous investigations [ 1 ]. E. faecium suspensions were applied either in a 10 7 or 10 8 CFU/ ml concentration, based on our cell viability experimental results.…”

“…Intestinal diseases caused by Escherichia coli ( E. coli ) and Salmonella spp. may lead to significant economic loss in food-producing animals and may also pose a threat to human health as (1) both bacteria are zoonotic, (2) they may contaminate pork products in the food chain, and (3) they may develop resistance to antibiotics, thus contributing to the transmission of antimicrobial resistance [ 1 , 2 , 3 ].…”

“…Any option that can reduce the spread of resistance is crucial for human health so that antibiotic treatment can remain effective. Finding alternatives capable of maintaining the health of the gastrointestinal tract without the use of antibiotics is not only pivotal for the swine industry, but also for human health [ 1 ]. Phytochemicals, pre- and probiotics, organic acids, enzymes, antimicrobial peptides, anti-bacterial virulence drugs, minerals and bacteriophages are nowadays being considered alternatives to antibiotics [ 6 ].…”

“…Due to the similarities between the pig and human intestine, the IPEC-J2 cell line is not only important for mimicking the GIT of swine but conclusions can also be made for humans [ 27 ]. It is a widely used tool for studying the effects of probiotic applications [ 20 , 24 , 28 ] and other substances (for example proantocyanidines and wheat germ extract) [ 1 , 29 ].…”