“…The morphologies of nanomaterials, cells, and material-cell interfaces are typically characterized through scanning electron microscopy (SEM), ,,,,,,,,,,,, transmission electron microscopy (TEM) (refs , , , , , , , , , , , , , , and ), and atomic force microscopy (AFM). , Furthermore, the electrochemical/photoelectrochemical properties of NMHSs are frequently studied using techniques such as differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) , and cyclic voltammetry (CV), ,,,− often in conjunction with customizable illumination sources. The elucidation of charge separation and recombination in nanomaterials, as well as charge transfer at material-cell interfaces, is primarily achieved through techniques such as photoluminescence and time-resolved photoluminescence (PL/TRPL) spectroscopy, ,,,,,, transient absorption (TA) spectroscopy, ,,,, scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM), , scanning tunneling microscopy (STM), and synchrotron X-ray radiation techniques. , Additionally, analytical methods like high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), , mass spectrometry (MS), and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) are available for the identification of unknown species in the reaction system, particularly those with suspected biological or electrochemical effects, such as energy carriers. The mechanisms of intracellular energy flow and metabolism are investigated through transcriptomic, proteomic, and metabolomic analyses conducted on microbial cells within NMHSs. , These approaches can provide additional evidence to elucidate the molecular machineries involved in these processes.…”