Promising Graphene-Based Nanomaterials and Their Biomedical Applications and Potential Risks: A Comprehensive Review

Abstract

Graphene-based nanomaterials (GBNs) have been the subject of research focus in the scientific community because of their excellent physical, chemical, electrical, mechanical, thermal, and optical properties. Several studies have been conducted on GBNs, and they have provided a detailed review and summary of various applications. However, comprehensive comments on biomedical applications and potential risks and strategies to reduce toxicity are limited. In this review, we systematically summarized the following aspects of GBNs in order to fill the gaps: (1) the history, synthesis methods, structural characteristics, and surface modification; (2) the latest advances in biomedical applications (including drug/gene delivery, biosensors, bioimaging, tissue engineering, phototherapy, and antibacterial activity); and (3) biocompatibility, potential risks (toxicity in vivo/vitro and effects on human health and the environment), and strategies to reduce toxicity. Moreover, we have analyzed the challenges to be overcome in order to enhance application of GBNs in the biomedical field.

Recent advances and challenges in graphene‐based nanocomposite scaffolds for tissue engineering application

“…Recently, scaffolds containing PEGylated GO have received great attention for use in skin, bone, cardiac, and neural tissue engineering 183 . Moreover, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) of the USA approved PEG for use to modify graphene‐based nanomaterials due to its superior solubility, stability, nontoxicity and nonimmunogenicity 10 . However, there are many challenges to the application of these graphene‐based nanomaterials in clinical studies.…”

“…The exceptional characteristics of these materials, such as high electronic conductivity, surface area, biocompatibility, excellent mechanical features, and nanoscale size compatible with cell surface receptors and ECM topography, are of much interest for numerous biological uses, including tissue engineering 2,8,9 . Recently, the research and application of graphene‐based nanomaterials in biomedical fields such as biological imaging, biosensors, anti‐bacteria, antineoplastic drug delivery, gene therapy, and PTT of tumors have also developed rapidly 10 . Moreover, recent progress in biomedical applications of these nanomaterials has developed biomedical equipment, such as blood glucose sensors 11,12 and deep brain stimulators 13 …”

Advances in Biologically Applicable Graphene-Based 2D Nanomaterials

“…It is important to mention that graphene-based nanomaterials (GBNs) have their own antimicrobial and anticancer activity and are also used for tissue engineering [ 36 , 37 , 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 , 47 ]. Their 2D nanostructure gives these NMs special physicochemical properties and biological behaviors, such as cell entry through endocytosis, as well as specific biodistribution, biodegradation, and excretion, which lead to their use in various biomedical applications [ 17 , 48 , 49 , 50 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 56 ] as well as for the treatment of plants [ 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 ].…”

“…GBNs actually consist of an aromatic carbon lattice (in one or more layers) and, depending on the degree of oxidation (i.e., materials, such as graphene oxide (GO) and reduced graphene oxide (rGO)), a different number and type of oxygen functional groups. However, all GBNs have an extremely large surface area, which, together with the specific structure and degree of oxidation, provide GBNs the capacity and flexibility of loading many types of compounds that are bound by non-covalent interactions (π-π stacking, hydrophobic interaction, and hydrogen bonding) [ 56 , 61 ].…”

“…The unique structure of GBNs also causes these NMs to show a significant photothermal effect. In addition to energy and industrial applications [ 23 , 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 ], the benefits/applications of GBNs in photodynamic (PDT), photothermal therapy (PTT), and photothermal antibacterial protection are expected [ 56 , 65 , 66 , 67 ]. These specific optical properties of GBNs, especially absorption of NIR radiation [ 68 , 69 , 70 ], may allow another mode of targeted delivery, via photothermal drug release, and also allow a new targeted therapeutic modality, via photothermal ablation [ 64 ].…”