Processing the Word Red and Intellectual Performance: Four Replication Attempts

Abstract

Colors convey meaning and can impair intellectual performance in achievement situations. Even the processing of color words can exert similar detrimental effects. In four experiments, we tried to replicate previous findings regarding the processing of the word "red" (as compared to a control color) on cognitive test scores. Experiments 1 and 2 (Ns = 69 and 104) are direct replications of Lichtenfeld, Maier, Elliot, and Pekrun (2009). Both experiments failed to uncover a red color effect on verbal reasoning scores among high school students and undergraduates (Cohen's d = 0.04 and-0.23). Experiments 3 and 4 (N = 103 and 1,149) failed to identify an effect of processing red on general knowledge test scores (Cohen's d = 0.19) and 0.01) among undergraduates and adults. Together, these results do not corroborate the assumption that processing the word red impairs intellectual performance.

Limited evidence for the effect of red color on cognitive performance: A meta-analysis

“…Again, current theoretical models would not expect a sex-dependent impact of red; rather, color effects are assumed to be universal. More importantly, several close replications of the experiments reported in Elliot et al (2007) were unable to reproduce the original findings (e.g., Steele et al, 2018) and related effects (e.g., cognitive effects of processing the word red; Gnambs, Kovacs, & Stiglbauer, 2020). The conflicting findings on red color effects in achievement situations are also evident in Table 1, which summarizes the initial and most recent study results for different cognitive measures.…”