Problems associated with the use of pit latrines in Blantyre, Republic of Malawi

Abstract

A questionnaire and observational study was conducted to determine the problems associated with construction, design and hygiene methods used to maintain pit latrines in a high-density urban township in Malawi. The survey comprised 100 randomly selected households and the person responsible for the latrine maintenance was interviewed. Eighty-seven percent of householders used traditional latrines, 67% with earthen and 20% with concrete (i.e. sanitation platform, also known as San-plats) floors. A variety of makeshift squat-hole covers (e.g. iron sheets, rocks, cardboard) are used by those who cannot afford San-plats to reduce fly and odour problems. Most squat-hole covers were fouled with faecal matter and some presented risk of invasive injury due to sharp edges. Five households used ventilated improved latrines whilst the remaining eight per cent made use of their neighbour's latrine. Ownership of property, poverty and theft in the area significantly influenced the type and structural condition of the latrine. Walls, ceilings and doors of the superstructure comprised a mixture of miscellaneous materials (i.e. cardboard, paper, cloth, brick) making the hygienic upkeep of the latrine difficult. Cloth doors were often used for hand drying. Geographical location, such as rocky terrain with inadequate soil consolidation, and environmental conditions, such as heavy rains and floods, exacerbate structural defects. Coupled with the lack of attention afforded to the disposal of young children's faeces, wash-water and pit surcharging, the potential exists for widespread contamination of the surrounding environment and transmission of faecal-oral disease. More than half of the respondents stressed that they had not received any information regarding health education and hygienic maintenance of the latrine. As such, there is need for a hygiene education programme to promote awareness of appropriate sanitation and behavioural change. Cultural and religious factors were found not to influence latrine use.

Prediction of Low Community Sanitation Coverage Using Environmental and Sociodemographic Factors in Amhara Region, Ethiopia

“…11 In addition to the influence of poor soil conditions, heavy rain and flooding can exacerbate structural weaknesses of the rudimentary onsite sanitation facilities typically found in subSaharan Africa. 46 A follow-up study of 666 latrines provided in the Gambia documented that 77 of the latrines collapsed over the course of two wet seasons. 16 The authors of that study described how sandy soil became liquefied, causing the latrines' cement slab and ring block to sink or collapse under their own weight.…”

Contextual investigation of factors affecting sludge accumulation rates in lined pit latrines within Kampala slum areas, Uganda

“…Greater mass loss at the 90-100% moisture level is attributed to the fact that more moisture facilitates exchange of substrate material and buffering agents, dilution of inhibitors, and the distribution/spread of microbes (Bakare et al, 2012). Sufficient water in the pit will allow increased rates of transport of soluble components and micro-organisms in the pit, allowing for optimum growth to occur (Foxon et al, 2010).…”

“…The majority (46%) of pit latrines are in a fair condition but about 35% are in a poor state, either filled up or almost filled up (Zziwa et al, 2014). Despite widespread access, the conditions of the facilities are insufficient and unhygienic due to the large number of users per stance (Nordberg and Winblad, 1994;Grimason et al, 2000;Montgomery, 2007). 'Stance' in the context of Uganda's pit latrines refers to a pit latrine room with one drop hole.…”

Water, sanitation and urban children: the need to go beyond “improved” provision

“…Lindskog, P and J Lundqvist can present problems for young children. Maintenance frequently becomes an issue; (60) neighbours resent it when children leave things dirty, and children themselves are at higher risk of faecal contact than they would be with private facilities. Pit latrines present a particular problem.…”