Problem Gambling in the Fitness World—A General Population Web Survey

Abstract

The world of sports has a complex association to problem gambling, and the sparse research examining problem gambling in athletes has suggested an increased prevalence and particularly high male predominance. The present study aimed to study frequency and correlates of problem gambling in populations with moderate to high involvement in fitness or physical exercise. This is a self-selective online survey focusing on addictive behaviors in physical exercise distributed by ‘fitness influencers’ on social media and other online fitness forums to their followers. Respondents were included if they reported exercise at least thrice weekly, were above 15 years of age, and provided informed consent (N = 3088). Problem gambling, measured with the Lie/Bet, was studied in association with demographic data, substance use, and mental health variables. The occurrence of lifetime problem gambling was 8 percent (12 percent in men, one percent in women). In logistic regression, problem gambling was associated with male gender, younger age, risky alcohol drinking, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and less frequent exercise habits. In conclusion, in this self-recruited population with moderate to high fitness involvement, problem gambling was moderately elevated. As shown previously in elite athletes, the male predominance was larger than in the general population. The findings strengthen the link between problem gambling and the world of sports.

Financial Literacy and Exercise Behavior: Evidence from Japan

“…Our findings on the association between alcohol consumption and exercise are also consistent with previous studies [83][84][85]. However, our finding that frequent gambling does not have a significant relationship with exercise is inconsistent with Håkansson et al [86], who found a positive association between problem gambling and physical activity. Among the behavioral variables, our finding on the positive association of happiness level with regular exercise is consistent with other studies [87][88][89][90].…”

Psychological Distress and Problem Gambling in Elite Athletes during COVID-19 Restrictions—A Web Survey in Top Leagues of Three Sports during the Pandemic

“…Problem gambling traditionally has been more common in men in the general population, but gender differences in prevalence may have become narrower during the past few years [39,40]. However, males appear to be even more over-represented with respect to problem gambling in elite athletes [19,20] and in fitness-involved young adults and adolescents [48]. In the present study, as in previous studies in athletes, problem gambling was clearly more common in men and more common in this group than likely would be the case in the general population [21,39], whereas gambling on a moderate-risk or problem level was even non-existing in women.…”

Problem Gambling and Problem Gaming in Elite Athletes: a Literature Review

“…There may be several explanations for the markedly large gender difference in problem gambling in athletes. Although in one study only, a similar finding regarding a surprisingly large gender difference in the prevalence of problem gambling was seen from a web survey addressing people with an assumingly high interest in sports, that is, individuals with regular exercise habits and who were social media followers of well-known fitness profiles (Håkansson et al, 2020a ). First, one possible explanation may be the fact that women tend to develop gambling problems at a later age than men, such that the assessment of elite athletes, typically young adults, may not detect women who may or may not develop problem gambling later in life, but who have not yet initiated gambling patterns of the same intensity as men.…”

“…The specific effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on gambling behaviors are beyond the scope of the present review paper, but both studies clearly demonstrated a gender difference in gambling problems, as in a number of other papers here. In addition, the Swedish study, carried out with a methodology similar to a general population study in the same setting (Håkansson, 2020 ), concluded that the self-reported changes in gambling behaviors during the pandemic were similar to those reported in the general population, that is, with a limited proportion reporting an increase in gambling, but with a significant link between this and gambling problems (Håkansson et al, 2020a ). Given the extensive consequences of the pandemic on the world of sports, including career uncertainty and mental distress (Håkansson et al, 2020b ), problem gambling within the group of elite athletes may require further research attention, also with respect to the impact of COVID-19.…”