Privacy nudges for disclosure of personal information: A systematic literature review and meta-analysis

Abstract

Objective Digital nudging has been mooted as a tool to alter user privacy behavior. However, empirical studies on digital nudging have yielded divergent results: while some studies found nudging to be highly effective, other studies found no such effects. Furthermore, previous studies employed a wide range of digital nudges, making it difficult to discern the effectiveness of digital nudging. To address these issues, we performed a systematic review of empirical studies on digital nudging and information disclosure as a specific privacy behavior. Method The search was conducted in five digital libraries and databases: Scopus, Google Scholar, ACM Digital Library, Web of Science, and Science Direct for peer-reviewed papers published in English after 2006, examining the effects of various nudging strategies on disclosure of personal information online. Results The review unveiled 78 papers that employed four categories of nudge interventions: presentation, information, defaults, and incentives, either individually or in combination. A meta-analysis on a subset of papers with available data (n = 54) revealed a significant small-to-medium sized effect of the nudge interventions on disclosure (Hedges’ g = 0.32). There was significant variation in the effectiveness of nudging (I2 = 89%), which was partially accounted for by interventions to increase disclosure being more effective than interventions to reduce disclosure. No evidence was found for differences in the effectiveness of nudging with presentation, information, defaults, and incentives interventions. Conclusion Identifying ways to nudge users into making more informed and desirable privacy decisions is of significant practical and policy value. There is a growing interest in digital privacy nudges for disclosure of personal information, with most empirical papers focusing on nudging with presentation. Further research is needed to elucidate the relative effectiveness of different intervention strategies and how nudges can confound one another.

Users’ Information Disclosure Behaviors during Interactions with Chatbots: The Effect of Information Disclosure Nudges

“…The difference between the two nudges might be due to the fact that user disclosure is an intrinsic behavior and people do not make judgments about their privacy based on what others do. These results come to complement previous research [97,114,115] on nudging and privacy for the disclosure of personal information online (not just specific to chatbots). Overall, empirical research on digital nudging to alter users' disclosure behaviors has produced conflicting findings in the past, with some studies finding it to be quite effective while others have found no such results [97].…”

“…These results come to complement previous research [97,114,115] on nudging and privacy for the disclosure of personal information online (not just specific to chatbots). Overall, empirical research on digital nudging to alter users' disclosure behaviors has produced conflicting findings in the past, with some studies finding it to be quite effective while others have found no such results [97]. On one hand, studies have demonstrated that motivating communications and persuasive messages with stronger arguments or more positive framings can enhance the disclosure of private information [114,116].…”

“…According to Cialdini, seven tactics signal the use of a peripheral message (i.e., authority, commitment, contrast, liking, reciprocity, scarcity, and social proof). These have found wide use in the application of nudge theory [29,[97][98][99]. Social proof is one of the seven tactics and is defined as "signals of popularity and demand" [98].…”

“…However, there is still a question mark as to how to decrease-rather than increase-disclosure of high-sensitivity information. On the other hand, a growing interest has been shown in examining the impact of social nudges, centered around the social proof, used to affect users' privacy decision-making online [97]. According to research, social cues, such as the knowledge that a majority of users' peers have taken similar actions, such as disclosing personal information, can lead to an increase in information disclosure on websites [29,99].…”

An investigation into factors affecting the willingness to disclose personal health information when using AI-enabled caregiver robots

“…In the context of information disclosure, these two theories have been used to examine individuals' willingness to disclose personal information via technology such as IoT-enabled smart applications (Zhang et al ., 2023), AI-powered smart hospital (Jia et al ., 2022), online banking subscriptions (Njenga and Ndlovu, 2012), and intelligent machines (Majeed and Hwang, 2023). When used in conjunction, PCT and TAM highlight the importance of perceived benefits and trust in shaping individuals' willingness to disclose information (Ioannou et al ., 2021). In the context of caregiver robots, PCT and TAM were employed to develop an integrative nomological network to investigate the user's willingness to disclose the PHI required to use the robots.…”