Principles and Early Historical Development of Silicon Avalanche and Geiger-Mode Photodiodes

Abstract

The historical development of technology can inform future innovation, and while theses and review articles attempt to set technologies and methods in context, few can discuss the historical background of a scientific paradigm. In this chapter, the nature of the photon is discussed along with what physical mechanisms allow detection of single-photons using solid-state semiconductor-based technologies. By restricting the scope of this chapter to near-infrared, visible and near-ultraviolet detection we can focus upon the internal photoelectric effect. Likewise, by concentrating on single-photon semiconductor detectors, we can focus upon the carrier-multiplication gain that has allowed sensitivity to approach the single-photon level. This chapter and the references herein aim to provide a historical account and full literature review of key, early developments in the history of photodiodes (PDs), avalanche photodiodes (APDs), single-photon avalanche diodes (SPADs), other Geiger-mode avalanche photodiodes (GM-APDs) and silicon photo-multipliers (Si-PMs). As there are overlaps with the historical development of the transistor (1940s), we find that development of the p-n junction and the observation of noise from distinct crystal lattice or doping imperfections -called "microplasmas" -were catalysts for innovation. The study of microplasmas, and later dedicated structures acting as known-area, uniform-breakdown artificial microplasmas, allowed the avalanche gain mechanism to be observed, studied and utilised.

Si Photonics for Practical LiDAR Solutions

“…Table 4 summarizes commonly used laser sources and photodetectors for different wavelengths. Most mechanical or MEMS-based LiDAR systems adopt 800-1000 nm wavelength band mainly because of the exceptional signal-to-noise ratio of Si avalanche photodiode (APD) or single photon avalanche detector (SPAD) [40]. With the consideration of eye-safety, pulsed (direct) ToF is often used for long distance ranging.…”

A brief history of image sensors in the optical

“…As described in the book from Fisher (2018), the investigation of light‐sensitive semiconductors was pursued at Bell Labs between the years of 1948 and 1952, and first reported by Shive (1949, 1953). However, for various reasons, semiconductors were initially no serious competitors against PMTs for astronomical photometry.…”

Introductory Chapter: ASIC Technologies and Design Techniques

“…For the case of data communications using currents rather than voltages, authors such as Yuan [12] note that current-mode designs have advantages over their voltage-mode counterparts. As silicon also responds to light, CMOS analogue circuits have found application for many optical sensing methods [13] and of course image sensors [14]. Likewise, many other quantities such as temperature, magnetic fields (via the Hall effect) or ion-concentrations can be measured using CMOS technologies.…”