Preventing the diversion of Turkish opium

Abstract

Turkey was once one of the world's largest sources of illicit opium; the majority diverted from sparsely regulated licit production. Since 1972, however, it has contributed almost no opium to the global black market. As such, Turkey is one of a small number of states to have eradicated, or severally reduced, the national supply of illicit opium. This article reconsiders post-1974 Turkish controls from a situational crime prevention perspective. It is suggested that Turkish success was founded upon reducing opportunities for diversion from regulated production by hardening targets, increasing formal and informal surveillance, assisting compliance through fair procurement practices and increasing the risk of non-compliance.

A contemporary evaluation of Turkish drug-control policy

“…We will discuss each of these factors below. Turkey historically has been under significant international pressure to strengthen its opiumcontrol and counter-narcotics capacity (Robins, 2008;Windle, 2013aWindle, , 2013b) -pressure that resulted in corresponding institutional, legislative, and policy changes in the 70s. More recently, Turkey established the Anti-Smuggling and Organized Crime Department (KOM) in 1983 and continued reforms in Police, Gendarmerie, and Customs at the institutional level; Turkey also made reforms at the personnelpolicy, regulations, and technological-capacity levels.…”

“…Despite its success in controlling the diversion of licit opium to illicit markets, Turkey continued to receive international attention and criticism in the 1980s, this time as a transit country rather than a source. Because precautions against opium diversion have made the Turkish opium supply more expensive and reduced its availability, traffickers have turned their attention to Southeastern Asian countries such as Afghanistan and Pakistan, where the supply is more available and cheaper (Windle, 2011(Windle, , 2013a. Parallel to the increase in demand in European countries in the 1980s, Turkey, due to its geographic position as a bridge between Asia and Europe, continued to serve as the heart of heroin trafficking from Afghanistan, the main supplier of heroin, to Europe, where the demand is high (Robins, 2008).…”

“…Parallel to the increase in demand in European countries in the 1980s, Turkey, due to its geographic position as a bridge between Asia and Europe, continued to serve as the heart of heroin trafficking from Afghanistan, the main supplier of heroin, to Europe, where the demand is high (Robins, 2008). In response, international focus shifted from preventing opium's illicit production and diversion to controlling transnational opium and heroin trafficking (Windle, 2013a).…”

A very gradual suppression: A history of Turkish opium controls, 1933–1974

“…A monopoly system was established whereby farmers were licensed to produce poppy straw to be manufactured into morphine (see Government of Turkey, 1986; UNFDAC, 1975; Warren-Gash, 1975; see also Decree No.7/8522, 1974; Decree No.7/9204, 1975). 7 The policy was founded upon reducing opportunities for diversion from regulated production by hardening targets, increasing formal and informal surveillance, assisting compliance through fair procurement practices and increasing the risk of non-compliance (Windle, 2013; see also Government of Turkey, 1988; Mansfield, 2001).…”

“…Until 1971 Turkey was one of the world’s largest sources of illicit opium. A small number of studies have investigated the original 1971 Turkish opium ban (Murphy and Steele, 1971; Robins, 2007; Spain, 1975; West, 1992) and the control of licit opium poppy cultivation administered after 1974 (Mansfield, 2001; Windle, 2013). Little attention has, however, been given to opium control policies administered by Turkey between 1933 and 1971.…”