Prevalence of Vitamin D Deficiency in Singapore: Its Implications to Cardiovascular Risk Factors

Abstract

ObjectiveVitamin D deficiency is a global health challenge and has been linked to type 2 diabetes and other chronic diseases. However, the relationship between vitamin D status, body composition, and cardiovascular risks has not been well characterized in Asian populations. The objectives of this study were to examine the factors associated with the low vitamin D levels in a sunny tropical region and to assess the role of vitamin D status in cardiovascular risk factors.Design and MethodsThis was a cross-sectional study. One hundred and fourteen healthy participants (59 males and 55 females) residing in Singapore took part in this study. Plasma 25OH-D3 concentration was measured by using LC-MS/MS. Body fat (%) was measured by using three different techniques including bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA), BOD POD, and dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA). Basic anthropometric measurements, fasting blood glucose (FBG), fasting serum insulin (FSI), and lipid profiles were obtained using standard protocols.ResultsApproximately 42% of the participants were vitamin D deficient (< 20 ng/mL). Vitamin D status was inversely associated with body fat (%), homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR), and total cholesterol/high density lipoprotein (TC/HDL) ratio, while positively associated with lean body mass (LBM) and hand grip strength (HGS).ConclusionsThe high prevalence of vitamin D deficiency in a sunny tropical region reinforces the need to recognize that sunlight alone is not the precursor for optimal vitamin D status. This raises the need to investigate public health measures that will encourage exposure to sunlight without overexposure that is harmful to skin. More importantly, vitamin D deficiency is associated with increased cardiovascular risks, i.e. HOMA-IR, TC/HDL, and LDL/HDL. Future studies should attempt to elucidate the potential mechanisms.

Prevalence of Vitamin D Deficiency and Its Associated Work-Related Factors among Indoor Workers in a Multi-Ethnic Southeast Asian Country

“…The prevalence of vitamin D deficiency in our study (32.9%) was lower than the prevalence (42.1%) reported in the general population (mean age: 31.5 years) of Singapore [11]. This could be partly due to the lower proportion of females (22%) in our study compared to the general population study (48%).…”

“…This could be partly due to the lower proportion of females (22%) in our study compared to the general population study (48%). Females tend to have lower vitamin D levels than males, owing to the frequent use of sunscreen and higher body fat percentage [11]. There have been a few studies conducted in workplace settings on vitamin D status in Southeast Asia.…”

“…Sun-protection behaviors such as wearing hats, sunscreen use, staying in the shade, wearing long sleeves or using an umbrella are common in this region. While the association between vitamin D deficiency and socio-demographic, lifestyle, clinical, and biochemical characteristics among the general population in Southeast Asia has been previously reported [10][11][12][13][14][15], relatively little is known about the effect of working conditions on vitamin D status. Understanding the work-related factors influencing vitamin D status can inform workplace policy and strategies to improve vitamin D levels of workers, and ensure improved health outcomes.…”

Predominance and Influence of Vitamin D Deficiency on Glycemic and Lipid Indices in Type 2 Diabetes Subjects: A Case Control Study

“…Among diabetes and nondiabetic groups the mean age and male:female ratio was found to be 49.76±5.21 years versus 48.52±6.03 years and 63:37 versus 66:34, respectively. The average serum 25(OH) D levels were significantly (p<0.001) low in diabetes group (9 [5,14] vs. 19 [12,28]) ng/mL (Tables 1 and 2). Compared to nondiabetes group Durgarao et al…”

“…Similar to the glycemic profile the lipid profile was also better in insufficient category which may be related to the specific pharmacotherapy of these patients. Jorde R, Grimnes G [28] reported a positive correlation between vitamin D status and HDL whereas, Xinyan Bi et al [11] found no such association but they reported a significant inverse relation between TC/HDL, LDL/HDL ratios and serum 25(OH) D levels. In this study, insignificant but negative and positive associations were reported between serum 25(OH) D levels, TC, TGs, TC/HDL ratio, AIP and HDL, respectively, among the diabetes patients (Table 4).…”