Prevalence of vitamin D deficiency and its associated risk factors among rural population of the northern part of the Persian Gulf

Abstract

Background Accumulating evidence indicates that vitamin D deficiency has been increased globally over the last two decades. However, the majority of these studies are concerned with cities and there is scant information regarding the prevalence of vitamin D in rural areas. The main aim of this study was to investigate the prevalence of vitamin D deficiency and its associated risk factors among the rural population in Bushehr province which shares the longest border with the Persian Gulf. Methods The rural inhabitants of more than 25 years old from three mountainous, plain, and seashore areas of Bushehr province were selected through a stratified multi-cluster random sampling method. After obtaining the participants’ demographic and anthropometric data and their past medical history, serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D] was measured using ELISA. Results A total of 1806 (means ±SD, 46± 14years old) rural subjects (35 % males and 65 % females) participated in this study. The prevalence of vitamin D deficiency, insufficiency, and sufficiency were 28 %, 50 %, and 22 %, respectively. The deficiency of vitamin D in women was higher than in men (OR=1.27, 95 % CI: 1.05 to 1.54, P=0.04). There was a positive significant correlation between age and serum vitamin D levels. Men with vitamin D deficiency had higher BMI (P=0.008); this association was not observed among women (P=0.7). There was no significant difference between the food item’s consumption frequencies, and vitamin D status (P>0.05). The mountainous, and plain areas had the highest and lowest vitamin D levels, respectively. Conclusions Although, Bushehr province is located in a sunny part of Iran, the prevalence of vitamin D deficiency was high among its rural population. The shift of their lifestyle patterns and rapid industrialization in these rural areas may be responsible. Therefore, the enrichment of dietary sources with vitamin D and the use of vitamin D supplements are recommended to tackle the high prevalence of vitamin D deficiency in the rural population of the northern part of the Persian Gulf.

Prevalence, trend, and predictor analyses of vitamin D deficiency in the US population, 2001–2018

“…Pereira-Santos et al ( 37 ) reported that 28.16% of Brazilians suffered from VDD when using a cut-off of 50 nmol/L, higher than the result of our study (24.6%). It could mean that other factors besides latitude or sun exposure may affect vitamin D status, like race/ethnicity, cultural practices, and other factors ( 38 , 39 ). For instance, in the United States, food supplementation and fortification are common sources of vitamin D ( 40 ), but they are unavailable in many African and South American countries ( 13 ).…”

Vitamin D Intake and Factors Associated With Self-Reported Vitamin D Deficiency Among US Adults: A 2021 Cross-Sectional Study

“…There was a negative association between age and vitamin D status, in which younger individuals had identified they were vitamin D deficient. Marzban et al ( 47 ) observed that participants ( n = 1,806) who were between the ages of 30–39 had lower serum vitamin D levels compared to participants who were 80 years and older. This was further confirmed by analyses of NHANES data ( n = 25,010) that showed 42.4% of individuals between the ages of 18–39 years old were vitamin D deficient compared to 21.0% of individuals aged 60 years and older ( 48 ).…”

Hubungan Asupan Vitamin D dan Keluhan Muskuloskeletal pada Kelompok Usia 17-35 Tahun

“…Hal ini diduga akibat perubahan gaya hidup dan pada masyarakat setempat sehingga peningkatan makanan sumber vitamin D dan suplemen tambahan direkomendasikan untuk mengatasi permasalahan ini. 25 Hasil yang berbeda pada penelitian ini bisa disebabkan karena adanya perbedaan pada jenis makanan. Jenis-jenis makanan yang ditanyakan pada kuesioner penelitian ini merupakan jenis makanan yang universal.…”

“…Sumber makanan utama yang kaya akan vitamin D berbeda tergantung kebiasaan makan dan kebijakan gizi di masing-masing negara, misalnya di negara Amerika dan Kanada sumber utamanya berupa susu, daging dan ikan, di Britania Raya berupa daging, produk olahan daging, lemak dan sereal, di Jepang berupa ikan, telur dan jamur. 13 Temuan-temuan tadi mengindikasikan bahwa asupan vitamin D tidak selalu mencerminkan konsentrasi vitamin D dalam serum tetapi tetap dapat dijadikan suatu skrining risiko defisiensi vitamin D. [25][26][27]…”