Prevalence of Protozoa Species in Drinking and Environmental Water Sources in Sudan

Abstract

Protozoa are eukaryotic cells distributed worldwide in nature and are receiving increasing attention as reservoirs and potential vectors for the transmission of pathogenic bacteria. In the environment, on the other hand, many genera of the protozoa are human and animal pathogens. Only limited information is available on these organisms in developing countries and so far no information on their presence is available from Sudan. It is necessary to establish a molecular identification of species of the protozoa from drinking and environmental water. 600 water samples were collected from five states (Gadarif, Khartoum, Kordofan, Juba, and Wad Madani) in Sudan and analysed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and sequencing. 57 out of 600 water samples were PCR positive for protozoa. 38 out of the 57 positive samples were identified by sequencing to contain 66 protozoa species including 19 (28.8%) amoebae, 17 (25.7%) Apicomplexa, 25 (37.9%) ciliates, and 5 (7.6%) flagellates. This study utilized molecular methods identified species belonging to all phyla of protozoa and presented a fast and accurate molecular detection and identification of pathogenic as well as free-living protozoa in water uncovering hazards facing public health.

Active and adaptive Legionella CRISPR‐Cas reveals a recurrent challenge to the pathogen

“…As L. pneumophila cycles through over at least 15 species of diverse protozoa in the environment (Rowbotham, ; Fields, ; Solomon et al , ; Molmeret et al , ), acquisition of LME‐1 would likely confer a costly host range switch under environmental conditions of sufficient host diversity. Note that this could occur within freshwater, the typical habitat of L. pneumophila (Fliermans et al , ), as Dictyostelium species have been observed in lakes and sediment (O'Dell, ; Richards et al , ; Somboonna et al , ; Shanan et al , ); at the same time, L. pneumophila has also been isolated from soil (Wallis and Robinson, ; Schalk et al , ; van Heijnsbergen et al , ), a long‐established habitat of D. discoideum (Singh, ). While D. discoideum is generally thought of within the context of a laboratory model for Legionella infection, these data suggest that further scrutiny should be placed on the natural association of L. pneumophila and D. discoideum in the environment.…”

An Overview of Drug Resistance in Protozoal Diseases

“…These species have a relatively complex internal structure and carry out complex metabolic activities. [2]. The developmental stages of the parasites generally consist of feeding trophozoites, either intracellularly (within host cells) or extracellularly (in hollow organs, body fluids, or interstitial spaces between cells).…”

Water source quality testing in Gezira State, Sudan, using the compartment bag test

“…Unsafe water and poor sanitation and hygiene have been reported to rank third among the 20 leading risk factors for health burden in developing countries, including Sudan (Shanan et al 2015). In Sudan where adequate quantities of domestic water are already available on demand, the main task over the next few years will be to sustain water quality.…”

“…The risk posed by each of these sources varies greatly. Approximately 13.5% prevalence of diarrheal diseases in Sudan was recorded among children living in areas where people draw water from uncertified Hafirs (Shanan et al 2015). Both sources present health hazards to the users.…”