Prevalence of Cryptosporidium and Other Enteric Parasites Among Wild Non-Human Primates in Polonnaruwa, Sri Lanka

Abstract

Cryptosporidiosis is a rapidly emerging disease in the tropics. This is the first report of Cryptosporidium and other protozoan infections (Entamoeba spp., Iodamoeba, Chilomastix, and Balantidium spp.) in wild primates that inhabit the natural forest of Sri Lanka. It is unclear if non-human primates serve as a reservoir for these parasites under certain conditions. A cross-sectional coprologic survey among 125 monkeys (89 toque macaques, 21 gray langurs, and 15 purple-faced langurs) indicated that Cryptosporidium was detected in all three primate species and was most common among monkeys using areas and water that had been heavily soiled by human feces and livestock. Most macaques (96%) shedding Cryptosporidium oocysts were co-infected with other protozoans and important anthropozoonotic gastrointestinal parasites (e.g., Enterobius and Strongyloides). The transmission of these parasites among primates in the wild may have important implications for public health as well as wildlife conservation management.

Terrestriality and bacterial transfer: a comparative study of gut microbiomes in sympatric Malagasy mammals

“…Although a prior meta-analysis of primate parasite diversity failed to find a substrate effect [64], other studies have reported lower parasite prevalence in arboreal primates compared to sympatric terrestrial primates [92][93][94]. These studies did not, however, account for disparities in home range size, which may influence exposure to microorganisms [95].…”

Purple-faced Langurs in Human-Modified Environments Feeding on Cultivated Fruits: A Comment to Dela (2007, 2012)

“…Further, local farmers graze their cattle in the sanctuary. The researchers showed that infection with the apicomplexan protozoan Cryptosporidium (causing the diarrheal illness cryptosporidiosis in humans) was higher in purple-faced langur groups using areas and water that had been heavily soiled by human feces and livestock (Ekanayake et al 2006). Work in the more urbanized parts of the purplefaced langur's range highlighted some of the other dangers of living too close to humans, with langurs being killed by electrocution and guard dogs, or by traffic while crossing roads (De Silva et al 2011;Parker et al 2008).…”

“…Researchers at the Polonnaruwa Archeological Sanctuary investigated the gastrointestinal parasites in a population of purple-faced langurs (Dewit et al 1991;Ekanayake et al 2006Ekanayake et al , 2007. Parts of the sanctuary are subject to a continuous flow of local pilgrims and tourists, who, along with local residents, use areas near water as open toilets, for picnicking, and for disposal of food waste.…”

The biogeography and ecology of Sri Lankan mammals point to conservation priorities

“…Snares set for bush meat trap other animals, including leopards (Kittle et al 2014). Humans and their domestic animals also have introduced disease, such as toxoplasmosis (Ekanayake et al, 2004), cryptosporidiosis and a variety of enteric parasites into wild populations of primates (Ekanayake et al, 2006(Ekanayake et al, , 2007.…”