Prevalence and Phenotypic Antimicrobial Resistance among ESKAPE Bacteria and Enterobacterales Strains in Wild Birds

Abstract

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a current public health issue globally. To counter this phenomenon and prioritize AMR in the health sector, the World Health Organization (WHO) published a list of bacterial pathogens against which the development of new antimicrobial agents is urgently needed, designating the ESKAPE pathogens (i.e., Enterococcus faecium, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Acinetobacter baumannii, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Enterobacter species) with a ‘priority status’. Moreover, the One Health High Level Expert Panel (OHHLEP) states that human health is closely linked to animal and environmental health, thus promoting a holistic One Health approach in order to be prepared to address possible emerging health threats from the human–animal–environment interface. Wild birds may host and spread pathogens, integrating the epidemiology of infectious diseases. The aim of this study was to examine the role of wild birds as a source of ESKAPE bacteria and other antibiotic-resistant enterobacterales. A total of fifty strains within the ESKAPE group were detected in 40/163 cloacal samples of examined birds (24.5%). Additionally, different strains of enterobacterales were detected in 88/163 cloacal samples (53.9%). Isolated strains exhibited antimicrobial resistance, including towards critically important antibiotics (e.g., third, fourth, fifth generation cephalosporins, fluoroquinolones) for human medicine. Our results confirm that wild birds are potential reservoirs of several pathogens and antimicrobial-resistant bacteria and that they could be involved in the dissemination of those bacteria across different environments, with resulting public health concerns.

Biofilm Inhibition on Medical Devices and Implants Using Carbon Dots: An Updated Review

“…The group is known as ESKAPE as it comprises of following bacteria: Enterococcus faecium , S. aureus , Klebsiella pneumoniae , Acinetobacter baumannii , P. aeruginosa , and Enterobacter species . These bacterial pathogens are accountable for numerous nosocomial infections and human mortality . These bacteria possess the ability to form biofilms with a protective EPS that makes these pathogens antibiotic resistant.…”

“…40 These bacterial pathogens are accountable for numerous nosocomial infections and human mortality. 41 These bacteria possess the ability to form biofilms with a protective EPS that makes these pathogens antibiotic resistant. They enter the body either during medical procedures or from bacteria present on the skin leading to nosocomial infection and infection of medical devices or implants.…”

Pathogenic Bacteria in Free-Living Birds, and Its Public Health Significance

“…Although wild birds are infrequently exposed to antimicrobial agents, their faecal waste might function as reservoirs and potential disseminators of resistant bacteria in the environment [ 4 ]. It is believed that birds contract resistant bacteria from humans and other sources by consuming infected food or water [ 3 ]. Antibiotic residues and bacteria expressing antibiotic resistance may enter the environment as a result of the spread of medicated animal manure and urban effluents into agricultural land [ 191 ].…”

“…This creates the potential for the establishment of novel foci of emerging or re-emerging communicable diseases along bird migration routes [ 2 ]. Birds, in particular free-living birds, have been widely reported as reservoirs of pathogens and, due to their ability to occupy different ecological niches and to adapt to many urban, suburban, and livestock environments, represent true sentinels [ 3 ]. Numerous studies conducted worldwide have reported the presence of various bacteria in wild birds, many of which may have a high zoonotic potential [ 4 , 5 , 6 ].…”

Advances in Nanotechnology for Biofilm Inhibition

“…The ESKAPE group (Figure ) is a collection of six genera that are responsible for a range of nosocomial infections . These organisms include both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria.…”