Prevalence and Correlates of Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) and Spatial Distribution of Unimproved WASH in Nepal

Dhital, Shalik Ram; Chojenta, Catherine; Evans, Tiffany‐Jane; Acharya, Tri Dev; Loxton, Deborah

doi:10.3390/ijerph19063507

Cited by 8 publications

(7 citation statements)

References 40 publications

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“…[ 7 ] Complete lack of water and sanitation services globally was 12% and 21%, respectively, higher than those reported in this study (4.6% and 16.3%, respectively). [ 10 , 32 ] However, similar to the findings of this study, globally, about 16% of health-care facilities lacked hygiene services. [ 33 ]…”

Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 79%

Situational Analysis of Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene in Health-care Facilities of a District in Central India

Ganesan,

Shukla,

Galhotra

et al. 2023

International Journal of Applied &Amp; Basic Medical Research

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Background: Water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) in health-care facilities is fundamental for providing quality, people-centered care and critical to achieving quality and accessible health services. This study aimed to assess the status of the WASH infrastructure in health-care facilities of Raipur district, Chhattisgarh, India. Methodology: This was a hospital-based cross-sectional study carried out in all public health-care facilities of Abhanpur block, Raipur district, Chhattisgarh, India, between 2019 and 2020 using an adapted version of joint monitoring program’s (JMP) core questions, indicators, and service ladder framework. Results: A total of 2 community health centers (CHCs), 7 primary health centers (PHCs), and 34 subhealth centers (SHCs) were included in the present study. All CHCs (100%) had essential water, sanitation, hygiene, and waste management services. Among PHCs, 85.7% had water from improved and hygienic sources, only 57.1% had basic sanitation, and 100% had vital essential waste management services. Among SHCs, 55.9% had essential water, 2.9% had basic sanitation, 20.6% had basic hygiene, and 35.3% had necessary waste management services. Overall, it was found that 62.8% of health-care facilities had necessary water services, 16.3% had basic sanitation services, 34.9% had essential hygiene services, and 48.8% had basic waste management services. Conclusion: The status of WASH infrastructure in health-care facilities of Raipur district is either limited or not available, especially concerning sanitation services, hygiene, and waste management services. It is the need of the hour to ensure a coordinated response that in all health-care facilities, WASH services are made available and accessible.

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Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 79%

Situational Analysis of Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene in Health-care Facilities of a District in Central India

Ganesan,

Shukla,

Galhotra

et al. 2023

International Journal of Applied &Amp; Basic Medical Research

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“… Above variables were categorized according to the classification of previously published articles [ 1 , 23 ], PhD thesis [ 24 ] and DHS-7 guidelines [ 25 ]. …”

Section: Methodsmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…In 2021, approximately 96% of Nepalese households had improved water sources, 84% had access to a sanitary toilet, 81% had a fixed place for handwashing with soap, and 47% had soap and water available in a handwashing place [ 1 , 2 ]. There are few studies on individual household water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) practices, and these do not specifically investigate the risk factors associated with mothers’ access to combined WASH in Nepal.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Multi-level factors associated with utilization of water, sanitation and hygiene services by mothers in Nepal

Dhital,

Chojenta,

Loxton

2024

PLoS ONE

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Background Providing improved water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) at a household level remains one of the major public health challenges in Nepal. Household mothers are likely to have limited access to combined WASH services, this is influenced by individual, and community factors. Individual components of an improved water source, sanitary toilet, fixed place for handwashing, and availability of soap and water were merged into one and called combined WASH. This paper aimed to identify the individual and community factors associated with combined WASH facilities and practices among mothers with children under five years in Nepal. Methods A cross-sectional study was conducted using data from the Nepal Demographic and Health Survey (NDHS), 2016. The weighted sample size of this study was 4887 mothers with children under five years. The independent variables within the mothers included age, education, occupation, and caste/ethnicity in addition to education of the husband, wealth index, exposure to the newspaper, radio and television, residence, ecological zones, provinces, distance and participation in health mother groups were analyzed with the outcome variable of combined WASH. A multi-level mixed effects logistic regression model was used to assess the relationship of explanatory variables with WASH. Results At an individual level, a rich wealth index was positively associated with combined WASH (AOR = 6.29; 95%CI: 4.63–8.54). Higher education levels and exposure to television had higher odds of having combined WASH. At the community level, the hill zone, urban residence, and Sudurpashim Provinces were positively associated with combined WASH while Madesh and Karnali Provinces and distance to water source greater than 31 minutes were associated with lower access to combined WASH. Conclusion Educated and rich household have positive association with combined WASH. It is recommended that both the health and other sectors may be instrumental in improving the combined WASH service for mothers at households.

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“…The rate of handwashing is normally called percentage of household mothers who washed their hands where denominator is the total number of households mothers included in the study. In 2023, Dhital et al conducted a cross sectional study using Nepal Demographic and Health Survey (NDHS) 2016 found the availability of soap and water was 47% [34]. Two municipalities Shankarapur and Tandi in Chitwan were 28% and 34%, respectively [35].…”

Section: Rates Of Household Handwashing With Soap By Mothers In Nepalmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…The key factors associated with handwashing with soap and water are education, wealth and ecology [34]. A cross-sectional study carried out among randomly selected mothers from 178 households in Makwanpur district in 2018 found maternal knowledge and the household wealth index affect handwashing with soap practices [36].…”

Section: Factors Associated With Maternal Handwashing In Nepalmentioning

confidence: 99%

Maternal Handwashing with Soap Practices and Associated Risk Factors in Nepal: A Systematic Review

Dhital,

Chojenta,

Bagade

et al. 2024

Hygiene

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Handwashing with soap is a fundamental practice for preventing communicable diseases, particularly in resource-constrained settings like Nepal, where various factors influence maternal handwashing behaviours. A systematic search encompassing PubMed/Medline, Embase, PsycINFO, CINAHL and grey literature source was conducted. Extracted eligible articles underwent descriptive analysis and their quality assessment was carried out following STROBE guidelines. From the initial screening of 187 database articles and 18 from grey literature, a total of 120 full text articles and records were retrieved to evaluated for inclusion in the review, identifying nine articles meeting the inclusion criteria for the review. Maternal handwashing with soap frequencies varied during critical moments ranging from 6% to 100%, and a 47% availability of soap and water at the household level was reported. Factors influencing handwashing included education, wealth, ecology, and participation in health promotion campaigns. Barriers included knowledge gaps, contrary beliefs, unavailability of soap and water, financial constraints, maternal demotivation, and low participation in decision-making. Limitations include study design heterogeneity (cross-sectional, Randomized Controlled Trials-RCT, Cohort), sample size variability, and geographical bias, potentially limiting generalizability of this study, limited reporting on soap and water availability for mothers at the household level is noted, and temporal variability introduces study inconsistency. Availability of soap, water, and effective health education is crucial for promoting sustained handwashing practices. Community-based interventions involving mothers in decision making and policy initiatives are essential for overcoming barriers and promote behavioural change to improve public health outcomes. This paper aims to determine the rates of handwashing with soap among mothers in Nepalese households and explore the factors associated with the uptake of handwashing.

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Prevalence and Correlates of Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) and Spatial Distribution of Unimproved WASH in Nepal

Cited by 8 publications

References 40 publications

Situational Analysis of Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene in Health-care Facilities of a District in Central India

Situational Analysis of Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene in Health-care Facilities of a District in Central India

Multi-level factors associated with utilization of water, sanitation and hygiene services by mothers in Nepal

Maternal Handwashing with Soap Practices and Associated Risk Factors in Nepal: A Systematic Review

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