Prevalence and correlates of secondary traumatic stress in workplace lay trauma counselors

Abstract

Quantitative (N = 130) and qualitative (N = 30) data were collected to explore the experiences of nonprofessional trauma counselors in the workplace. Counselors, on average, did not experience symptoms of secondary traumatic stress (STS) requiring clinical intervention. Changes to cognitive schemata regarding counselors' world views were found to be present 6 weeks after their last trauma counseling incident. Counselors reported experiencing considerable role satisfaction. Factors related to the nature of the trauma counseling task and counselors' exposure to work and nonwork related trauma were not significantly associated with counselors' STS or role satisfaction scores. Program coordination, self-efficacy, stakeholder commitment, sense of coherence, and perceived social support were significantly related to counselors' experiences of STS and role satisfaction.

Trauma Work, Sense of Coherence, and Positive and Negative Changes in Therapists

“…There is consistent evidence for negative effects on therapists and counsellors as a result of this work [1, 2, 3]. However, a singularly negative focus ignores the possibility of the positive changes that may arise following trauma.…”

Strategies for Reducing Secondary or Vicarious Trauma: Do They Work?

“…For instance, a study of 70 human rights workers in Kosovo who were responsible for collecting data on human rights violations revealed elevated levels of anxiety in 17.1%, depression in 8.6%, and PTSD symptoms in 7.1% (Holtz, Salama, Cardoza, & Gotway, 2002). Among lay trauma counselors who had been trained to assist bank employees following bank robberies in South Africa, 10% reported secondary traumatic stress symptoms in the high or extremely high range (Ortlepp & Friedman, 2002). Conversely, in a study of 173 child welfare workers exposed both to traumatic imagery through the stories of clients and direct exposure to trauma such as violence and threats directed at them, 46.7% reported traumatic stress symptoms in the severe range (Regehr, Chau, Leslie, & Howe, 2002a, 2002b.…”

“…Several quantitative studies point to elevated rates in trauma among counselors and therapists working with traumatized individuals, nevertheless, whereas these studies support the notion that trauma counselors endorse items on questionnaires consistent with secondary traumatic stress and vicarious trauma, symptoms generally do not reach a clinically significant level or one in which symptoms markedly interfered with functioning (Arvay & Uhlemann, 1996;Brady, Guy, Poelstra, & Brokaw, 1999;Chrestman, 1995;Kassam-Adams, 1995;Ortlepp & Friedman, 2002;Schauben & Frazier, 1995). For instance, a study of 70 human rights workers in Kosovo who were responsible for collecting data on human rights violations revealed elevated levels of anxiety in 17.1%, depression in 8.6%, and PTSD symptoms in 7.1% (Holtz, Salama, Cardoza, & Gotway, 2002).…”

“…Similar to traumatic stress, symptoms of vicarious trauma can include immediate reactions such as intrusive imagery, nightmares, increased fears for the safety of oneself and loved ones, avoidance of violent stimuli in the media, difficulty listening to clients' accounts of events, irritability, and emotional numbing. Longer term reactions can include emotional and physical depletion, a sense of hopelessness, and a changed world view in which others are viewed with suspicion and cynicism (Iliffe & Steed, 2000;Ortlepp & Friedman, 2002;Regehr & Cadell, 1999;Schauben & Frazier, 1995).…”

“…Factors that influence symptom level include the number or percentage of trauma cases on a therapist's caseload (Brady et al, 1999;KassamAdams, 1995;Marmar et al, 1999;Ortlepp & Friedman, 2002;Resnick, Kilpatrick, Best, & Kramer, 1992;Schauben & Frazier, 1995), the availability of social support (Ortlepp & Friedman, 2002;Schauben & Frazier, 1995), personal histories of trauma and abuse (Jenkins & Baird, 2002;Kassam-Adams, 1995;Pearlman & MacIan, 1995;Wall, 2001), and the perception that they had adequate training to effectively assist victims, thereby reducing the sense of hopelessness that may accompany this work (Ortlepp & Friedman, 2002).…”