Prevalence and correlates of posttraumatic stress disorder among Kuwaiti military men according to level of involvement in the first Gulf War

Abstract

First, to compare the prevalence and intensity of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) among Kuwaiti military men, divided into four groups (50 subjects each) according to degree of exposure to war trauma: (1) the retired (retired before the invasion); (2) an active-in-the-army group (AIA) (involved in duties at the rear only); (3) an in-battle (IB) group (involved in combat); and (4) prisoners of war (POWs-captured during combat). Second, to compare the severity of impact of event, comorbid depression, and anxiety among the groups. Third, to evaluate the contribution of self-esteem and locus of control (LOC). Subjects were interviewed once, 6 years after the war, using: the Clinician Administered PTSD Scale; the Impact of Event Scale (IES); the Hopkins Symptom Checklist-25; the Internal-External LOC; and The Self-Esteem Scale. Subjects were aged 24-71 years (mean 37.9). Sixty-three subjects (31.5%) fulfilled criteria for PTSD, with the rate significantly higher among the POWs (48%) than the retired (24%) and IB (22%), reflecting the severity of IES. Avoidance symptoms were the most pronounced. Self-esteem was significantly lowest among the POWs and those with PTSD. External LOC was associated with PTSD, anxiety, and depression. Self-esteem was the only covariate of PTSD scores. LOC was a significant covariate for anxiety. The characteristics of PTSD in these veterans showed similarity with those from elsewhere. The prominence of self-esteem and avoidance symptoms implies that they should be part of focus for interventions. Focus on LOC should be from the perspective of anxiety.

The overlooked relationship between motivational abilities and posttraumatic stress: a review

“…Findings from cross-sectional studies appear to be consistent in that there is a small to medium negative relationship between self-esteem and posttraumatic stress symptoms (e.g., Al-Turkait & Ohaeri, 2008; Li et al, 2009), indicating that subjects with higher self-esteem experience traumatic stress to a lesser extent. In addition, several studies have reported significant negative associations between self-esteem and childhood adversities (e.g., Stein et al, 2002; Vigil et al, 2010), with the highest negative association found between childhood emotional abuse/emotional neglect and self-esteem (Finzi-Dottan & Karu, 2006; Kuo et al, 2011).…”

“…The cross-sectional findings regarding locus of control are inconsistent. The vast majority of the studies that we reviewed report a small to medium positive relationship between an external locus of control and traumatic stress (Al-Turkait & Ohaeri, 2008; Kuterovac-Jagodic, 2003; Maercker & Herrle, 2003; Mellon et al, 2009; Weiss et al, 1995). That is, individuals who do not feel in control over the events in their lives tend to be affected by posttraumatic symptoms to a greater degree.…”

Getting a Life: Gender Differences in Postwar Recovery

“…Studies of the psychological outcomes of war, conducted in various settings and cultures, have mainly focused on adverse effects, the most common of which is PTSD (e.g., Al-Turkait and Ohaeri 2008;Dyregrov et al 2002;Galea et al 2003;Thabet and Vostanis 2000;Yaswi and Haque 2008). A similar tendency can be found in studies conducted in Israel (e.g., Palmieri et al 2008).…”

Relationship between Symptoms of Anxiety and Depression in a Sample of Arab College Students Using the Hopkins Symptom Checklist 25

“…Second, it has been shown to have cross-cultural equivalence between Western European and Arabic populations [53]. Third, the HSCL-25 has been used in Kuwait in general population and clinical settings [57,58], and an Arabic translation already exists. Finally, there are no reports on the factor structure of the HSCL-25 [59].…”