Preparation and characterization of a soluble eggshell membrane/agarose composite scaffold with possible applications in cartilage regeneration

Abstract

Articular hyaline cartilage is an extremely hydrated, not vascularized tissue with a low‐cell density. The damage of this tissue can occur after injuries or gradual stress and tears (osteoarthritis), minor damages can be self‐healed in several weeks, but major injuries may eventually require surgery. In fact, in this case, because of nature of the cartilage (the absence of cells and vascularization) it is difficult to expect its natural regeneration in a reasonable amount of time. In recent years, cell therapy, in which cells are directly transplanted, has attracted attention. In this study, a scaffold for implanting chondrocytes was prepared. The scaffold was made as a sponge using the eggshell membrane and agarose. The eggshell membrane is structurally similar to the extracellular matrix and nontoxic due to its many collagen components and has good biocompatibility and biodegradability. However, scaffolds made of collagen only has poor mechanical properties. For this reason, the disulfide bond of collagen extracted from the insoluble eggshell membrane was cut, converted into water‐soluble, and then mixed with agarose to prepare a scaffold. Agarose is capable of controlling mechanical properties, has excellent biocompatibility, and is suitable for forming a hydrogel having a three‐dimensional porosity. The scaffold was examined for Fourier‐transform infrared, mechanical properties, biodegradability, and biocompatibility. In in vitro experiment, cytotoxicity, cell proliferation, and messenger RNA expression were investigated. The study demonstrated that the agarose/eggshell membrane scaffold can be used for chondrocyte transplantation.

Eggshell integrated GelMA/CSMA/HyMA hybrid hydrogels for cell therapy/tissue engineering

“…The swelling ratio is another essential factor in tissue engineering because it is associated with the degree of water absorption that allows efficient cell‐loading and nutrient delivery 79 . To evaluate their potential as a tissue regeneration material, the swelling capacity of the GelMA/CSMA/HyMA/Eggshell hybrid hydrogel scaffolds was measured in a PBS medium.…”

Recent Developments and Current Applications of Organic Nanomaterials in Cartilage Repair

“…Garakani et al [ 76 ] proved that mechanical stimulation is an effective method to enhance cartilage extracellular matrix synthesis, and agarose, which has both biocompatibility and some mechanical strength, has been widely used as a cell culture scaffold for mechanical stimulation studies. When chondrocytes are attached to a scaffold composed of agarose gel, the action of external forces can accelerate the directed differentiation of chondrocytes, while stimulating the proliferation of differentiated chondrocytes and the secretion of ECM [ 77 , 78 ]. Although the applied mechanical load can induce the differentiation of chondrocytes and also promote the synthesis of the extracellular matrix of cartilage tissue, it is not the only factor that affects the synthesis of cartilage matrix; the surface structure of the material that encases the chondrocytes is also crucial.…”

Avian Egg: A Multifaceted Biomaterial for Tissue Engineering

“…Several studies have used the 3-mercaptopropionic acid-extraction method to develop SEP-containing scaffolds for cartilage, skin, and bone TE. − Been et al combined SEPs with agarose to fabricate a scaffold for cartilage repair and regeneration . Compared to pure agarose scaffolds, agarose-SEP scaffolds had faster degradation.…”

“…[144][145][146][147] SEPs with agarose to fabricate a scaffold for cartilage repair and regeneration. 144 Compared to pure agarose scaffolds, agarose-SEP scaffolds had faster degradation. In vitro studies with rabbitderived chondrocytes showed that the incorporation of SEPs into the scaffold increased cell proliferation and survival, resulting in higher chondrogenic gene expression and increased synthesis and deposition of ECM proteins.…”