Premature Aging in Chronic Kidney Disease: The Outcome of Persistent Inflammation beyond the Bounds

Abstract

Over the last hundred years, life expectancy in developed countries has increased because of healthier living habits and the treatment of chronic pathologies causing premature aging. Aging is an inexorable, time-dependent, multifactorial process characterized by a series of progressive and irreversible physiological changes associated with loss of functional, psychological, and social capabilities. Numerous factors, such as oxidative stress, inflammation, and cellular senescence, and an irreversible geriatric syndrome known as frailty, contribute to human body deterioration in aging. The speed of aging may differ between individuals depending on the presence or absence of multiple factors (genetic and/or environment) and the subsequent misbalance of homeostasis, together with the increase of frailty, which also plays a key role in developing chronic diseases. In addition, pathological circumstances have been reported to precipitate or accelerate the aging process. This review investigated the mechanisms involved in the developing pathologies, particularly chronic kidney disease, associated with aging.

Endothelial Senescence and the Chronic Vascular Diseases: Challenges and Therapeutic Opportunities in Atherosclerosis

“…Clinical symptoms appear when the affected vessel is coronary, carotid, or cerebral. Artery plaque formation is a progressive disorder initiated by damage accumulation in the artery and influenced by cardiovascular risk factors [1], including age, which is a universal factor for arteriosclerosis development [3].…”

“…The aging process is associated with a frailty situation in which old adults impair the physiological homeostatic system, which cannot respond successfully to stressful situations. This frailty state is reached when tissues and systems fail because their cells have become senescent due to damage accumulation over the years or by damaging agents in chronic pathologies [3].…”

Exploring New Kingdoms: The Role of Extracellular Vesicles in Oxi-Inflamm-Aging Related to Cardiorenal Syndrome

“…A far as we know, it is of note that the number of frail patients reaching end-stage kidney disease is increasing [ 145 ]. In addition, frailty has been associated with an increased risk of CVD [ 27 , 150 ]. However, patients who reverse the frailty state also prevent the development of CVD [ 144 ].…”

“…However, elevated plasma levels of EVs are involved in the etiopathogenesis of many chronic inflammatory diseases. They have been detected in patients with cardiovascular risk factors (diabetes, hypertension, peripheral vascular disease, heart failure), aged people, and individuals who have suffered from CKD and cancer [ 25 , 26 , 27 ]. Thus, EVs are emerging as promising candidates in clinical diagnosis and a possible alternative in monitoring the therapeutic follow-up, acting as biomarkers due to their involvement in developing senescence in chronic inflammatory pathologies, such as CVD-associated-CKD [ 26 , 28 ].…”

Differentially Expressed Genes and Molecular Susceptibility to Human Age-Related Diseases

“…Because a standard definition of age-related diseases (ARDs) has yet to be agreed upon, epidemiologists differentiate between, on the one hand, all non-infectious diseases with a reliance on incidence rates rising exponentially with age, no matter the lifespan, and, on the other hand, the diseases that start in early life and have stable or lowered incidence rates in the elderly [ 3 ]. Given this lack of strict classification, many age-related diseases can be named as ARDs: sarcopenic obesity [ 4 ], homeostasis dysregulation [ 5 ], subfertility [ 6 ], lipodystrophy [ 7 ], sarcopenia [ 8 ], macular degeneration [ 9 ], chronic inflammation [ 10 ], osteoarthritis [ 11 ], endothelial dysfunction [ 12 ], tissue senescence [ 13 ], cancer [ 14 ], atherosclerosis [ 15 ], cardiovascular diseases [ 16 ], chronic kidney disease [ 17 ], stroke [ 18 ], frontotemporal dementia [ 19 ], Alzheimer’s [ 20 ], and Parkinson’s [ 21 ], to mention some. Moreover, many other pathologies can contribute to ARDs: amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, to motoneuronal aging [ 22 ]; mitochondrial dysfunction, to aging as such [ 23 ]; vascular atherosclerosis, to cellular senescence [ 24 ]; hypertension, to vascular aging [ 25 ]; thalassemia, to myelodysplastic syndrome [ 26 ]; cancer, to immune system aging and vice versa [ 27 ]; and circadian rhythm disorder, to aging as such [ 28 ].…”