Predicting Autonomous Shuttle Acceptance in Older Drivers Based on Technology Readiness/Use/Barriers, Life Space, Driving Habits, and Cognition

Abstract

Shared autonomous vehicle services (i. e., automated shuttles, AS) are being deployed globally and may improve older adults (>65 years old) mobility, independence, and participation in the community. However, AS must be user friendly and provide safety benefits if older drivers are to accept and adopt this technology. Current potential barriers to their acceptance of AS include a lack of trust in the systems and hesitation to adopt emerging technology. Technology readiness, perceived ease of use, perceived barriers, and intention to use the technology, are particularly important constructs to consider in older adults' acceptance and adoption practices of AS. Likewise, person factors, i.e., age, life space mobility, driving habits, and cognition predict driving safety among older drivers. However, we are not sure if and how these factors may also predict older adults' intention to use the AS. In the current study, we examined responses from 104 older drivers (Mage = 74.3, SDage = 5.9) who completed the Automated Vehicle User Perception Survey (AVUPS) before and after riding in an on-road automated shuttle (EasyMile EZ10). The study participants also provided information through the Technology Readiness Index, Technology Acceptance Measure, Life Space Questionnaire, Driving Habits Questionnaire, Trail-making Test Part A and Part B (TMT A and TMT B). Older drivers' age, cognitive scores (i.e., TMT B), driving habits (i.e., crashes and/or citations, exposure, and difficulty of driving) and life space (i.e., how far older adults venture from their primary dwelling) were entered into four models to predict their acceptance of AVs—operationalized according to the subscales (i.e., intention to use, perceived barriers, and well-being) and the total acceptance score of the AVUPS. Next, a partial least squares structural equation model (PLS-SEM) elucidated the relationships between, technology readiness, perceived ease of use, barriers to AV acceptance, life space, crashes and/or citations, driving exposure, driving difficulty, cognition, and intention to use AS. The regression models indicated that neither age nor cognition (TMT B) significantly predicted older drivers' perceptions of AVs; but their self-reported driving difficulty (p = 0.019) predicted their intention to use AVs: R2 = 6.18%, F (2,101) = 4.554, p = 0.040. Therefore, intention to use was the dependent variable in the subsequent PLS-SEM. Findings from the PLS-SEM (R2 = 0.467) indicated the only statistically significant predictors of intention to use were technology readiness (β = 0.247, CI = 0.087-0.411) and barriers to AV acceptance (β = −0.504, CI = 0.285-0.692). These novel findings provide evidence suggesting that technology readiness and barriers must be better understood if older drivers are to accept and adopt AS.

Autonomous Shuttle Operating on Highways and Gravel Roads in Rural America: A Demonstration Study

“…Although nationally representative surveys provide valuable information about users’ willingness to accept and adopt AVs, individuals should be directly exposed to this emerging technology, to inform their perceptions of the capabilities and limitations of automation [ 5 , 6 , 13 , 22 , 23 , 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 ]. While we hope that automation solves our current transportation problems, we want users to have realistic expectations of automation and to calibrate their trust, perceptions, and hesitation with the actual capabilities of the systems.…”

“…It may be a few decades until the private sector is able to provide for rural areas across the US. Several studies and demonstration projects are looking into the feasibility of these types of services and the acceptance of this technology by this population [ 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 ]. However, this type of research is often done via survey without exposure to ADS.…”

“…However, this type of research is often done via survey without exposure to ADS. Individuals should have lived experiences riding in an autonomous vehicle (AV) to inform their perceptions of this emerging technology [ 5 , 6 , 13 ].…”

“…Although sparse, researchers have found that exposure to autonomous shuttles, positively influences older adults’ perceptions of AVs. However, these studies have occurred in controlled suburban areas with shuttles operating at slow speeds (<10 mph), during ideal weather conditions (i.e., sunny without heavy rain), with rides lasting roughly 15 min [ 5 , 6 , 12 ]. Findings from these studies provide a strong foundation that will be expanded upon in this study.…”

Semi‐automated vehicles may not solve older drivers' mobility needs

“…Thus, older drivers report the least amount of confidence and trust in accepting AV (Figure 1A). 6 Although only 19% of older adults are ready to use AV, 7 increased exposure reduces older drivers' reluctance to using AV 8 . AV manufacturers therefore need to spend more effort on gaining the trust of older adults by educating them about the capabilities and safety benefits of AV technology and addressing their needs.…”