Potential of Yeasts as Biocontrol Agents of the Phytopathogen Causing Cacao Witches’ Broom Disease: Is Microbial Warfare a Solution?

Abstract

Plant diseases caused by fungal pathogens are responsible for major crop losses worldwide, with a significant socio-economic impact on the life of millions of people who depend on agriculture-exclusive economy. This is the case of the Witches’ Broom Disease (WBD) affecting cacao plant and fruit in South and Central America. The severity and extent of this disease is prospected to impact the growing global chocolate market in a few decades. WBD is caused by the basidiomycete fungus Moniliophthora perniciosa . The methods used to contain the fungus mainly rely on chemical fungicides, such as copper-based compounds or azoles. Not only are these highly ineffective, but also their utilization is increasingly restricted by the cacao industry, in part because it promotes fungal resistance, in part related to consumers’ health concerns and environmental awareness. Therefore, the disease is being currently tentatively controlled through phytosanitary pruning, although the full removal of infected plant material is impossible and the fungus maintains persistent inoculum in the soil, or using an endophytic fungal parasite of Moniliophthora perniciosa which production is not sustainable. The growth of Moniliophthora perniciosa was reported as being antagonized in vitro by some yeasts, which suggests that they could be used as biological control agents, suppressing the fungus multiplication and containing its spread. Concurrently, some yeast-based products are used in the protection of fruits from postharvest fungal spoilage, and the extension of diverse food products shelf-life. These successful applications suggest that yeasts can be regarded a serious alternative also in the pre-harvest management of WBD and other fungal plant diseases. Yeasts’ GRAS (Generally Recognized as Safe) nature adds to their appropriateness for field application, not raising major ecological concerns as do the present more aggressive approaches. Importantly, mitigating WBD, in a sustainable manner, would predictably have a high socioeconomic impact, contributing to diminish poverty in the cacao-producing rural communities severely affected by the disease. This review discusses the importance/advantages and the challenges that such a strategy would have for WBD containment, and presents the available information on the molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying fungi antagonism by yeasts.

Metschnikowia pulcherrima and Related Pulcherrimin-Producing Yeasts: Fuzzy Species Boundaries and Complex Antimicrobial Antagonism

“…Pulcherrimin is sometimes considered a siderophore (e.g., [ 7 , 15 , 63 , 64 , 67 , 84 , 88 , 89 , 90 ]) although it does not meet the definition. By definition, siderophores (Greek: “iron carrier”) are small, high-affinity iron-chelating compounds secreted by microorganisms to form soluble ferric complexes with the iron available in the environment and then the diffusible siderophore-Fe 3+ complex moves into the cell using specific membrane receptors and active transport mechanisms [ 91 , 92 , 93 ].…”

Vinasse Waste from Sugarcane-Based Bioethanol Production Plants Kills Moniliophthora Perniciosa, the Causative Agent of Cacao Witches' Broom Disease

“…Vinasse Waste from Sugarcane-Based Bioethanol Production Plants Kills Moniliophthora Perniciosa, the Causative Agent of Cacao Witches' Broom Disease M. perniciosa is a very aggressive fungus, virtually impossible to eradicate. Its exceptional virulence is intrinsically related to its ability to infect all the pant tissues in all the stages of the cacao plant life-cycle [20,23,24]. M. perniciosa is a hemibiotrophic fungus, which infectious cycle has two distinct phases: a biotrophic and a saprotrophic.…”

“…Classical chemical fungicides, usually azole or copper-based compounds, are not effective against M. perniciosa [26]. Presently, cacao Witches' Broom Disease has one single functional management technique, which consists in spraying the affected plantations with Tricovab ® , a Trichoderma stromaticum live suspension (reviewed by [24]). This other fungus is very efficient in antagonizing M. perniciosa, but it has to be multiplied in the surface of rice grains, being supplied lyophilized, as a service on demand, by an agro-support governmental organization (www.ceplac.gov.br).…”

Non-rhizobial Root Nodule Endophytic Yeast, Candida tropicalis VYW1 Impacts Germination, Nodulation behavior and Metabolic flux in Blackgram (Vignamungo L.)

“…Further, the yeast strain, C. tropicalis VYW1 showed indirect PGP characters such as polyamine production and high ACC deaminase activity, siderophore, polyamines, and ammonia production (Thanuja et al, 2020). Besides, PGP yeasts exhibit antagonistic action against plant pathogens (Ferraz et al, 2019). Thus the present investigation suggests that the co-operative interaction between rhizobia and non-rhizobial endophytic yeast (NREY) is of relevance in the enhancement of nodulation efficiency, vigor index, shoot, and root length and total biomass in blackgram.…”