Potential Biomarkers in Experimental Animal Models for Traumatic Brain Injury

Abstract

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a complex and multifaceted disorder that has become a significant public health concern worldwide due to its contribution to mortality and morbidity. This condition encompasses a spectrum of injuries, including axonal damage, contusions, edema, and hemorrhage. Unfortunately, specific effective therapeutic interventions to improve patient outcomes following TBI are currently lacking. Various experimental animal models have been developed to mimic TBI and evaluate potential therapeutic agents to address this issue. These models are designed to recapitulate different biomarkers and mechanisms involved in TBI. However, due to the heterogeneous nature of clinical TBI, no single experimental animal model can effectively mimic all aspects of human TBI. Accurate emulation of clinical TBI mechanisms is also tricky due to ethical considerations. Therefore, the continued study of TBI mechanisms and biomarkers, of the duration and severity of brain injury, treatment strategies, and animal model optimization is necessary. This review focuses on the pathophysiology of TBI, available experimental TBI animal models, and the range of biomarkers and detection methods for TBI. Overall, this review highlights the need for further research to improve patient outcomes and reduce the global burden of TBI.

Anti-Inflammatory and Cortical Responses after Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation in Disorders of Consciousness: An Exploratory Study

“…Indeed, the prognosis of DOC is still very complex, and there is growing interest in the role of biomarkers available on blood and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) [ 25 ]. To better characterise the pathophysiology of DOC and to identify potential biomarkers of severity and prognosis, numerous preclinical animal models (e.g., head-open and head-closed injury models) have been developed and, among the many aspects assessed (e.g., behavioural, neuroimaging), a great deal of interest is directed towards biomarkers [ 49 ]. In particular, nonspecific biomarkers, including those for damage (autophagy or apoptosis), inflammation (proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines), metabolic changes, and degeneration (nerve growth factor, vascular endothelial growth factor, tau protein) seem very promising [ 50 ].…”

Reactive gliosis in traumatic brain injury: a comprehensive review

“…Open head models require a craniotomy, and the impact is directed to the surface of the dura. CHI is a type of TBI, where the force impacts on the intact skull ( Deshetty and Periyasamy, 2023 ).…”

“…Open head models require a craniotomy, and the impact is directed to the surface of the dura. CHI is a type of TBI, where the force impacts on the intact skull (Deshetty and Periyasamy, 2023). (C) In Marmarou's WD model, the weight is dropped on a metal disc or other scull protection and simulates a diffuse concussive head injury for example in football players or car accidents.…”

Cellular and Molecular Pathophysiology of Traumatic Brain Injury: What Have We Learned So Far?

“…According to the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), biomarkers can be defined as a “characteristic that is measured as an indicator of normal biological processes, pathogenic processes, or responses to an exposure or intervention, including therapeutic interventions”. Recent advances in its characterization have been obtained in both humans and animal models [ 189 , 190 , 191 , 192 ].…”