Postembryonic development of the unique antenna of Mantophasmatodea (Insecta)

Abstract

a b s t r a c tThe postembryonic antennal development and life cycle of a member of the insect order Mantophasmatodea (Lobatophasma redelinghuysense) was investigated using a series of annulus counts and a time sequence of head capsule measurements. The life cycle comprised six instars. Females achieved significantly larger head capsules from instar 2 onwards, resulting in adult females having a larger mean head capsule diameter (2.58 mm) than males (2.27 mm). Antennae of first instar larvae comprised a smooth four-segmented basiflagellum and a seven-segmented, sensilla-rich distiflagellum. Lengthening of the basiflagellum was achieved by the addition of two annuli per moult, generated by division of the basal annulus (meriston). Annulus number and the unique annulation pattern of the distiflagellum remained constant until adulthood. The segmentation pattern of adult antennae (comprising a basiflagellum and a distiflagellum of 14 and seven annuli respectively) and mode of antennal elongation was consistent for all 11 species examined. Subdivisions in basiflagellar annuli were observed in adults of all species examined, although they are not considered to be true annular divisions. The structure of the mantophasmatodean antenna appears to be autapomorphic within Insecta, bearing little resemblance to that of Grylloblattodea, Dictyoptera or Phasmatodea, all putative sister groups of the Mantophasmatodea. However, the mode of flagellar elongation most closely resembles that of Isoptera, Blattaria and Dermaptera.

Biodiversity, ecology, and behavior of the recently discovered insect order Mantophasmatodea

“…From these observations, we assumed a diapause. However, successful rearing in Sclerophasma paresisense and Praedatophasma maraisi (in fact, Tyrannophasma gladiator, see locality) was reported by [17], who used increased moisture and rising temperatures following a cold period.…”

“…The Mantophasmatodea antennae are long, filiform, and have a flagellum well separated in basi-and distiflagellum; unique feature among insects [4,17,18]. While walking or hiding, these insects continuously wave their antennae in a manner similar to that of cockroaches (i.e., both antennae alternatively move up and down) (see Additional file 11: Video 5).…”

“…We observed heelwalkers that were restricted to dense bushes of different size on rocky hills that were not recently burned (Figures 3 and 4). Hockman et al, [17] noted putative Tanzaniophasma specimens from Cape Maclear, which is on the southern bank of Lake Malawi. In this area we observed nymphs in bush edging an open patch of unused dense shrubland along a creek.…”

“…In nature, the egg stages survive at least eight months of a dry summer (Austrophasmatidae) or winter (Mantophasmatidae, Tanzaniophasmatidae) within the resistant egg pods, and the first instar nymphs hatch the following year during the rainy season (i.e., in mid-summer for Namibia/East Africa and autumn/winter (May or later) for South Africa) (see also [17,19]). In the Naukluft Mountains (Namibia), we identified multiple (n > 20) first instar Striatophasma naukluftense nymphs [45] in the morning 14 days after a strong summer rain; scattered along a section of 200 m. The same section was searched the previous evening without success.…”

“…[4][5][6]). These descriptions were accompanied by a comprehensive description of the morphological features, such as genitalia of both sexes [4], the structure of sperm [7], eggs [8,9], head [10,11], circulatory organs [12], arolium and tarsus [13][14][15][16], and antennae [4,17,18], as well as studies on reproductive biology [19], communication [20][21][22], peptide hormones [23,24], physiology [25], and development [17,26,27]. In addition to molecular studies [4,[28][29][30][31], these studies provided the initial information for reconstructing the Mantophasmatodea phylogeny.…”