Possible Seasonality of<i>Clostridium difficile</i>in Retail Meat, Canada

Rodriguez-Palacios, Alexander; Reid‐Smith, Richard J.; Staempfli, H. R.; Daignault, Danielle; Janecko, Nicol; Avery, Brent P.; Martin, Hayley; Thomspon, Angela D.; McDonald, L. Clifford; Limbago, Brandi; Weese, J. S.

doi:10.3201/eid1505.081084

Cited by 112 publications

(97 citation statements)

References 11 publications

(9 reference statements)

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“…The prevalence of C. difficile found in this study is similar to that found in other recent Canadian studies (11,12) but is lower than that reported in a study from the United States (17). This should not be taken as an indication of regional variation in contamination because of the different methods that were used and the different products that were tested.…”

Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 72%

“…Initial studies have reported isolation of C. difficile from 4.6 to 45% of retail meat samples (11,12,17). However, all studies have used broth enrichment protocols, which could detect very low spore numbers and provide no information about the number of organisms present in a sample.…”

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confidence: 99%

“…In addition to humans, C. difficile can be found in the intestinal tracts of a variety of animal species, including food animals, such as cattle and pigs (7,10,13). Clostridium difficile has also been found in retail meat (11,12,17), and concerns about the role of food in the epidemiology of community-associated C. difficile infection (CA-CDI) have been expressed (5,8,15).…”

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confidence: 99%

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Detection and Enumeration ofClostridium difficileSpores in Retail Beef and Pork

Weese

Avery

Rousseau

et al. 2009

Appl Environ Microbiol

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159

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Recent studies have identified Clostridium difficile in food animals and retail meat, and concern has been raised about the potential for food to act as a source of C. difficile infection in humans. Previous studies of retail meat have relied on enrichment culture alone, thereby preventing any assessment of the level of contamination in meat. This study evaluated the prevalence of C. difficile contamination of retail ground beef and ground pork in Canada. Ground beef and ground pork were purchased from retail outlets in four Canadian provinces. Quantitative and enrichment culture was performed. Clostridium difficile was isolated from 28/230 (12%) samples overall: 14/115 (12%) ground beef samples and 14/115 (12%) ground pork samples (P ‫؍‬ 1.0). For ground beef, 10/14 samples (71%) were positive by enrichment culture only. Of the 4 ground beef samples that were positive by direct culture, 20 spores/g were present in 2 while 120 and 240 spores/g were present in 1 each. For ground pork, 10/14 (71%) samples were positive by enrichment culture only. Of the 4 ground pork samples that were positive by direct culture, 20 spores/g were present in 3 while 60 spores/g were present in 1. Ribotype 078 predominated, consistent with some previous studies of C. difficile in food animals. Ribotype 027/North American pulsotype 1 was also identified in both retail beef and pork. This study has identified relatively common contamination of retail ground beef and pork with C. difficile spores; however, the levels of contamination were very low.

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Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 72%

mentioning

confidence: 99%

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confidence: 99%

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Detection and Enumeration ofClostridium difficileSpores in Retail Beef and Pork

Weese

Avery

Rousseau

et al. 2009

Appl Environ Microbiol

Self Cite

159

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“…In contrast to hospitalacquired infection, C. difficile disease with community acquisition and community onset was associated with a wide variety of genotypes (Table 6). Community-acquired disease may be associated with the ingestion of C. difficile spores in meat or other foods (Rodriguez-Palacios et al, 2009;Visser et al, 2012), which would be expected to be heterogeneous, and this may explain the wide variety of genotypes identified. Martin et al (2008) found no association between NAP1/ribotype 027 and age, gender and inpatient/outpatient status.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Multidrug-resistant North American pulsotype 2 Clostridium difficile was the predominant toxigenic hospital-acquired strain in the province of Manitoba, Canada, in 2006–2007

Karlowsky

Zhanel

Hammond

et al. 2012

Journal of Medical Microbiology

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The objective of the current study was to determine whether the antimicrobial susceptibility profile or genotype of hospital-acquired isolates of Clostridium difficile differed from isolates causing community-acquired disease. Five hundred diarrhoeal stool samples (one .2 ml sample per patient) from patients across Manitoba, Canada, in 2006-2007 that were reported as C. difficile toxin positive were cultured, resulting in 432 isolates of toxin-positive C. difficile for analysis. Of these 432 isolates, acquisition status could be determined for 235 (54.4 %); 182 (77.4 %) isolates were hospital acquired and 53 (22.6 %) were community acquired. North American pulsotype (NAP) designations based on SmaI PFGE could be defined for 52.3 % of the 432 isolates, with NAP2 (n5122) being the most common. Ninety-one per cent (71/78) of NAP2 isolates were recovered from patients with hospital-acquired C. difficile disease. Other NAP types and isolates with non-NAP-type PFGE patterns were less frequently associated with hospitalacquired disease. Community-acquired disease (35.3 % of isolates) was associated with a wide variety of NAP types. NAP2 isolates were homogeneous (85.5 % had SmaI PFGE pattern 0003) and demonstrated low susceptibility to moxifloxacin (6.6 %) and clindamycin (1.6 %) compared with non-NAP2 isolates (64.1-93.2 % moxifloxacin susceptible; 14.1-28.2 % clindamycin susceptible). All isolates of C. difficile in Manitoba were susceptible to metronidazole, piperacillin-tazobactam, amoxicillin-clavulanate and meropenem. NAP2 isolates of toxigenic C. difficile were approximately three times more common than NAP1 isolates (28.2 vs 9.1 %) in Manitoba in [2006][2007], and these isolates demonstrated high levels of clonality and multidrug resistance, and were associated with hospital acquisition.

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“…While early studies conducted in North America reported a much higher contamination rate than elsewhere (Rupnik and Songer 2010), recent studies show the situation to be similar to other countries (Table 4). Rodriguez-Palacios et al (2009), noting an increased recovery of the bacterium from ground beef and chops in winter in Canada, suggested a seasonal component in C. difficile contamination in meats, and also hypothesised a possible epidemiological connection between the prevalence of C. difficile in food animals, some foods and humans .…”

Section: Prevalence and Food Products Concernedmentioning

confidence: 99%

Clostridium difficile in Food and Animals: A Comprehensive Review

Rodríguez

Taminiau

Broeck

et al. 2016

Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology

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Zoonoses are infections or diseases that can be transmitted between animals and humans through direct contact, close proximity or the environment. Clostridium difficile is ubiquitous in the environment, and the bacterium is able to colonise the intestinal tract of both animals and humans. Since domestic and food animals frequently test positive for toxigenic C. difficile, even without showing any signs of disease, it seems plausible that C. difficile could be zoonotic. Therefore, animals could play an essential role as carriers of the bacterium. In addition, the presence of the spores in different meats, fish, fruits and vegetables suggests a risk of foodborne transmission. This review summarises the current available data on C. difficile in animals and foods, from when the bacterium was first described up to the present.

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Possible Seasonality ofClostridium difficilein Retail Meat, Canada

Cited by 112 publications

References 11 publications

Detection and Enumeration ofClostridium difficileSpores in Retail Beef and Pork

Detection and Enumeration ofClostridium difficileSpores in Retail Beef and Pork

Multidrug-resistant North American pulsotype 2 Clostridium difficile was the predominant toxigenic hospital-acquired strain in the province of Manitoba, Canada, in 2006–2007

Clostridium difficile in Food and Animals: A Comprehensive Review

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