Population structure, diversity, and phylogeography in the near-threatened Eurasian black vultures Aegypius monachus (Falconiformes; Accipitridae) in Europe: insights from microsatellite and mitochondrial DNA variation

Abstract

The Eurasian black vulture (Aegypius monachus) has experienced a severe decline during the last two centuries and is globally classified as near-threatened. This has led to the extinction of many traditional breeding areas in Europe and resulted in the present patchy distribution (Iberian and Balkan peninsulas) in the Western Palearctic. In the present study, we describe the current genetic status of the European populations using both mitochondrial cytochrome b sequences and nuclear microsatellite markers, comparing with those found in Asia (Mongolia and Caucasus region). Although, mitochondrial (mt)DNA revealed a relatively low genetic variability (haplotype diversity), no evidence of genome-wide genetic erosion exists because nuclear diversity exhibits normal levels and strong differentiation. A highly philopatric dispersal behaviour must be invoked to explain the existence of a clear pattern that revealed by the phylogeographic analysis, which indicates a sharp East-West clinal distribution and an allopatric differentiation. The distribution of mtDNA haplotypes one in the Iberian population and two in Balkan population and the significance divergence at nuclear loci fulfill the definitions of those populations as evolutionary significant units. We discuss how management strategies should aim at the maintenance (or increase) of current genetic variability levels, suggesting that independent conservation plans are urgently required to protect these two breeding European populations from extinction.

Genetic structure and phylogeography of a European flagship species, the white‐tailed sea eagle Haliaeetus albicilla

“…if only two nuclear groups are found across the whole dis tribution, then we may hypothesize that Asia harbours predominantly (or even completely) eagles from the eastern cluster. Such a partitioning into two groups across the whole of Eurasia was not only found in sea eagles (see our mtDNA data) but also in two other large accipitrid species, the black vulture (Poulakakis et al 2008, mtDNA and microsatellites) and the bearded vulture Gypaetus barbatus (Godoy et al 2004, mtDNA), as well as the saker falcon Falco cherrug (Nittinger et al 2007). This is indicative of a similar biogeographic history of these four birds of prey and may reflect a more general pattern in Palaearctic birds as a clear west–east differentiation into two distinct mtDNA clades has also been found for a number of corvid species (both at the intraspecific level and for sibling species, e.g.…”

“…Interestingly, the inclusion of east‐European populations yielded even higher amounts of genetic diversity than found by Honnen et al (2010) who, in turn, found central European sea eagles to be more diverse than Scandinavian ones, particularly the largest European breeding population in Norway. A similarly counterintuitive distribution of genetic diversity was also found in black vultures Aegypius monachus : the large Iberian population exhibited lower diversity at both mtDNA and microsatellite loci than the small relict popu lation in Greece (Poulakakis et al 2008). Thus, for European sea eagles genetic diversity continually increases from the north via central Europe to the east and southeast of the continent.…”

Mitochondrial DNA analysis reveals Holarctic homogeneity and a distinct Mediterranean lineage in the Golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos)

“…The occurrence of two (main) haplogroups in large raptor species is not uncommon. White‐tailed eagles ( Haliaeetus albicilla , Honnen et al ., ; Langguth et al ., ), Cinereous vultures ( Aegypius monachus , Poulakakis et al ., ), Bearded vultures ( Gypaetus barbatus , Godoy et al ., ) as well as the Saker falcon ( Falco cherrug , Nittinger et al ., ) show a partitioning into two mtDNA lineages across their Eurasian distribution (none of them occurs in the Nearctic). What is unusual, however, is the geographic distribution of the two lineages in Golden eagles.…”

“…In Eurasia there were either several genetic lineages, mostly geographically separated with an area of overlap (e.g. Saker falcon Falco cherrug , Nittinger et al ., ; White‐tailed eagle Haliaeetus albicilla , Hailer et al ., ; Ponnikas et al ., ; Cinereous vulture Aegypius monachus , Poulakakis et al ., ; Bearded vultures Gypaetus barbatus , Godoy et al ., ; Red fox Vulpes vulpes , Statham et al ., ; Brown bear Ursus arctos , Davison et al ., ) or a single haplogroup and a lack of genetic structuring (e.g. Raven Corvus corax , Omland et al ., ; Haring, Gamauf & Kryukov, ).…”

Genetic diversity is retained in a bottlenecked Cinereous Vulture population in Turkey

“…Small populations are vulnerable to the effects of genetic drift and are prone to lose valuable genetic variation, which might eventually lead to local extinction due to inbreeding depression and lowered fitness (Mills 2013). A previous genetic study by Poulakakis et al (2008) included Cinereous Vulture samples from Spain, Germany, the Caucasus and Mongolia but none from Turkey. A previous genetic study by Poulakakis et al (2008) included Cinereous Vulture samples from Spain, Germany, the Caucasus and Mongolia but none from Turkey.…”