Polyunsaturated fatty acids in the food chain in the United States

Abstract

In the United States, intake of n-3 fatty acids is approximately 1.6 g/d ( approximately 0.7% of energy), of which 1.4 g is alpha-linolenic acid (ALA; 18:3) and 0.1-0.2 g is eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA; 20:5) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA; 22:6). The primary sources of ALA are vegetable oils, principally soybean and canola. The predominant sources of EPA and DHA are fish and fish oils. Intake data indicate that the ratio of n-6 to n-3 fatty acids is approximately 9.8:1. Food disappearance data between 1985 and 1994 indicate that the ratio of n-6 to n-3 fatty acids has decreased from 12.4:1 to 10.6:1. This reflects a change in the profile of vegetable oils consumed and, in particular, an approximate 5.5-fold increase in canola oil use. The ratio of n-6 to n-3 fatty acids is still much higher than that recommended (ie, 2.3:1). Lower ratios increase endogenous conversion of ALA to EPA and DHA. Attaining the proposed recommended combined EPA and DHA intake of 0.65 g/d will require an approximately 4-fold increase in fish consumption in the United States. Alternative strategies, such as food enrichment and the use of biotechnology to manipulate the EPA and DHA as well as ALA contents of the food supply, will become increasingly important in increasing n-3 fatty acid intake in the US population.

Effects of Scandinavian caviar paste enriched with a stable fish oil on plasma phospholipid fatty acids and lipid peroxidation

“…The addition of the antioxidant mixture Pufanox s (included in the fish oil used) into the enriched caviar paste might have terminated an ongoing lipid peroxidation process, leading to less in vivo lipid peroxidation after ingestion despite the higher content of EPA and DHA. Concerns have been raised about the oxidative stress that can result from increased intakes of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (Kris-Etherton et al, 2000;Sanders, 2000). There are some studies in humans concerning lipid peroxidation in plasma or LDL after intake of fish oils, using both high (Higdon et al, 2000(Higdon et al, , 2001 and low doses of fish oil (Higgins et al, 2001).…”

“…However, a group of nutrition scientists has recently provided guidelines for specific recommendations for adequate intakes (AI) of EPA and DHA (Simopolous et al, 1999), which has also been used by Kris-Etherton et al (2000) as a target for EPA and DHA increase in the US diet. This group suggests that intake of EPA and DHA combined should be 0.65 g/day (on a 2000 kcal diet, or 0.3% of energy).…”

Fish consumption, not fatty acid status, is related to quality of life in a healthy population

“…Fish types were categorized according to DHA content, as DHA is the predominant LCPUFA in fish [23]: low (fish fingers, prawns, pickled herring, cod, mussels, plaice, tuna, and tilapia), intermediate (trout, raw herring, smoked eel, smoked salmon, and canned salmon), and high (smoked herring, herring in tomato sauce, mackerel, canned sardines, and salmon). Frequency of consumption (never, once a month, two to three times a month, once a week, and more often than once a week) was used to calculate fish consumption within each category: 0, 1, 2, 4, and 8 for the 'low DHA' category; 0, 2, 4, 8, and 16 for the 'intermediate DHA' category; and 0, 3, 6, 12, and 24 for the 'high DHA' category.…”

Dose effect of alpha-linolenic acid on lipid metabolism in the hamster

“…Despite these beneficial effects, the dietary intake of n-3 PUFA is largely insufficient in many Western countries [5][6][7], and must be promoted. This can be achieved through a higher consumption of ALA which is easily available in some vegetable oils such as linseed, perilla, and to a lesser extent, walnut, rapeseed and soybean oils.…”