Polycentrism and pitfalls: the formation of water users forums in the Kikuletwa catchment, Tanzania

Facilitating public participation in water resources management: reflections from Tanzania

“…The basin's landscape covers all or part of 18 districts within Tanzania and some of the major tourism areas near Arusha, Manyara, and Kilimanjaro. The Pangani Basin has been a pioneer and a test case for Tanzania's legal and institutional frameworks for IWRM, evidenced by numerous studies (see Maganga et al 2004, Komakech and van der Zaag 2011, Lalika et al 2015, van Koppen et al 2016. It was the first river basin in Tanzania to have a BWO/BWB and the first to undergo a complete environmental flow assessment; the formation of WUAs was initiated here earlier than in other basins.…”

“…The country created a system of basin water offices and basin water boards, starting with the Pangani Basin in 1991, and followed soon after by the Rufiji Basin; these two basins were considered critical because their rivers generate an important part of Tanzania's electricity. In essence, the mandate of the basin water offices as first established was to rein in and gain control of water resources use and development by: registering and regulating all forms of water use in the basin, issuing formal water rights to users, and introducing and collecting water user fees (Komakech et al 2011). Seven more basin offices have been established since the 1990s (Fig.…”

“…Local interests for formation of a WUA have included increased connection with decision makers at a basin scale and water conflict resolution (Lalika et al 2015). The Tanzanian Ministry of Water and Irrigation and BWBs' interest in registering water users and collection of water fees has provided impetus in certain areas; water fees are part of a global trend based on the premise that they help promote more efficient use of water and could help BWBs finance themselves (Komakech et al 2011). Membership in WUAs has been obtained through one-time payment of membership and annual fees and participation in communal labor (Cleaver and Toner 2006), although the fee and the labor (or other requirement) vary by WUA.…”

“…The WUA leadership is tasked with navigating conflicts among stakeholders and ensuring compliance, but again often with little experience in these areas prior to the formation of the WUA. Finally, published studies from Tanzania have criticized WUAs for not sufficiently considering traditional or customary water management practices, or local conflict mediation processes (Sokile and van Koppen 2004, Komakech et al 2011, Strauch and Almedom 2011.…”

“…Precolonial water governance in Tanzania typically followed customary laws and aligned with the needs and realities of indigenous water users (Komakech et al 2011); in many cases, mwene (local chiefs) oversaw rotation-based water-sharing systems at the sub or village level (Mehari et al 2009). During the colonial period, formal water law was introduced by German and British settlers in the early 1900s, declaring all surface and ground waters to be property of the colonial government (Maganga 2003).…”