“…While rural populations struggle with social inequalities, including lack of access to basic sanitation, violence, dispossession, and oppression (Arbeláez-Ruiz, 2021), the catchment has been degraded by various competing human activities, including widespread extractive processes such as legal/illegal mining (Alvarez-Pugliese et al, 2021;Gallo Corredor et al, 2021;Rochlin, 2021), logging (González-González et al, 2021), monocultures (Correa-García et al, 2018), and those associated with illegal activities such as coca leaf production (Thomson et al, 2022). Vélez Torres and Vélez Galeano (2019) reviewed historical environmental conflicts in the UCRB. They found 18 cases between 1980 and 2016 that arguably concern in some way the role of hidden actors.…”