“…Following this groundbreaking study, political participation, defined as "activity that is intended to or has the consequence of affecting, either directly or indirectly, government action" (Verba et al, 1995, p. 9), has been used as an academic tool to capture public behavior related to politics (Ardèvol-Abreu et al, 2020;Chang, 2016;He et al, 2022;Ikeda et al, 2013;Pavlova et al, 2022). In this field, numerous studies have identified various determinants of political participation, including political efficacy (Heiss and Matthes, 2019;Ikeda et al, 2008;Jung et al, 2011), political knowledge (Gil de Zúñiga, 2012Johann, 2012;Lee et al, 2022), and media exposure (Pandey et al, 2020;Skoric et al, 2016;for review, Boulianne, 2020). For example, building on the theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 1991, Ajzen andFishbein, 2005), Reichert (2016) analyzed German longitudinal election data and showed that political efficacy increases the chance that citizens will participate in politics.…”