Plasticity and diversity of the phenology of dioecious Ficus species in Taiwan

Bain, Anthony; Chou, Lien‐Siang; Tzeng, Hsy‐Yu; Ho, Yi-Chiao; Chiang, Yun-Peng; Chen, Wen-Hsuan; Chio, Yu-Ting; Li, Guan-Yi; Yang, Hao-Hsiang; Kjellberg, Finn; Hossaert‐McKey, Martine

doi:10.1016/j.actao.2013.10.004

Cited by 20 publications

(51 citation statements)

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“…The general pattern of cauliflorous male fig production in F. benguetensis (spring and autumn production peaks and higher male fig production) is consistent with that in other dioecious Ficus in Taiwan (Bain et al 2014) or the Asian continent (Yu et al 2006). Our analysis reveals several mechanisms maximizing the chances of survival of pollinating wasps despite their estimated lifespan of 12 h to 3 days (Dunn et al 2008).…”

Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 80%

Sexual specialization in phenology in dioecious Ficus benguetensis and its consequences for the mutualism

et al. 2015

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BackgroundTiming of reproductive events has become central in ecological studies linking success in pollination and seed dispersion to optimizing the probability and periods of encounters with pollinators or dispersers. Obligate plant–insect interactions, especially Ficus–fig wasp mutualisms, offer striking examples of fine-tuned encounter optimization as biological cycles between mutualistic partners are deeply dependent on each other and intertwined over generations. Despite fig flowering phenology being crucial in maintaining Ficus–fig wasp mutualisms, until now, the forces of selection shaping the phenological evolution of dioecious fig trees have received little attention. By conducting a 2-year survey of a population of Ficus benguetensis in Northern Taiwan, we assessed whether environmental factors or other selective pressures shape the phenology of male and female fig trees.ResultsConstraints by mutualistic pollinating wasps and seed dispersers, rather than climatic factors, appeared to mainly shape fig phenology and allometry in F. benguetensis. We identified a new sexual specialization in dioecious fig trees: the position of fig production. We propose that the continuous male fig production on tree trunks can enhance the survival of pollinating fig wasps through faster localization of receptive figs while reducing the mutualistic conflict between the fig and its obligate pollinators. By contrast, in female trees, fig production is massive in summer, located on the twigs of the foliar crown and seem more related to seed dispersal and germination.ConclusionsIdentifying variations in the allometry and phenology of dioecious figs provide valuable insights into how monoecious and dioecious species resolve mutualism conflicts and into the emergence of dioecy in fig trees.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s40529-015-0113-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

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Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 80%

Sexual specialization in phenology in dioecious Ficus benguetensis and its consequences for the mutualism

et al. 2015

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“…In most parts of its range, F. erecta has a flowering phenology that is largely the same as that of F. carica [25] . This changes when the plant is grown under warmer conditions, outside its native range, where fig production on male trees becomes asynchronous [34] . The phenology of a second Asian species, F. pumila, is also similar to those of F. carica and F. erecta , but with one major difference.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Phenological Adaptations in Ficus tikoua Exhibit Convergence with Unrelated Extra-Tropical Fig Trees

et al. 2014

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Flowering phenology is central to the ecology and evolution of most flowering plants. In highly-specific nursery pollination systems, such as that involving fig trees (Ficus species) and fig wasps (Agaonidae), any mismatch in timing has serious consequences because the plants must balance seed production with maintenance of their pollinator populations. Most fig trees are found in tropical or subtropical habitats, but the dioecious Chinese Ficus tikoua has a more northerly distribution. We monitored how its fruiting phenology has adapted in response to a highly seasonal environment. Male trees (where fig wasps reproduce) had one to three crops annually, whereas many seed-producing female trees produced only one fig crop. The timing of release of Ceratosolen fig wasps from male figs in late May and June was synchronized with the presence of receptive figs on female trees, at a time when there were few receptive figs on male trees, thereby ensuring seed set while allowing remnant pollinator populations to persist. F. tikoua phenology has converged with those of other (unrelated) northern Ficus species, but there are differences. Unlike F. carica in Europe, all F. tikoua male figs contain male flowers, and unlike F. pumila in China, but like F. carica, it is the second annual generation of adult wasps that pollinate female figs. The phenologies of all three temperate fig trees generate annual bottlenecks in the size of pollinator populations and for female F. tikoua also a shortage of fig wasps that results in many figs failing to be pollinated.

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“…The distinctive phenological patterns exhibited by figs ( Ficus spp.) maintain populations of the tiny, short-lived, species-specific wasps (Hymenoptera: Agaonidae) that are their pollinators 1 2 3 . Figs have a closed, urn-shaped inflorescence, or syconium, lined with tiny uniovulate flowers.…”

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“…The ca. 750 Ficus species are distributed throughout the tropics and subtropics 9 and a variety of reproductive phenologies have evolved in response to differences in the seasonality of rainfall and temperature 2 10 . In an obligate mutualism, a successful phenological strategy must work for both partners.…”

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“…Phenological continuity at the population level is also essential for the male plants of dioecious species, but the removal of the inbreeding risk allows a wider range of phenological strategies for both sexes. Phenological diversity is particularly noticeable in strongly seasonal climates, where the wasps typically overwinter inside syconia and seasonal peaks of wasp release from male plants are synchronized with the availability of receptive female figs for pollination 2 15 16 . The reproductive phenology of female plants, in turn, is subject to the same selective pressures as in non-fig species, including the availability of pollinators and seed dispersal agents, and the seasonal occurrence of suitable conditions for seed germination and establishment.…”

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Winter cropping in Ficus tinctoria: an alternative strategy

Chen

Peng

Zhang

et al. 2015

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The many species of figs (Ficus, Moraceae) have evolved a variety of reproductive phenologies that ensure the survival of both the fig plants and their short-lived, species-specific, pollinating wasps. A phenological study of 28 male and 23 female plants of a dioecious hemiepiphytic fig, Ficus tinctoria, was conducted in Xishuangbanna, SW China at the northern margin of tropical SE Asia. In contrast to other figs of seasonal climates, which have a winter low in fig production, both sexes produced their major fig crops at the coldest time of the year. Male plants released pollinators during the period when most female trees were receptive and male syconia had a long wasp-producing (D) phase, which ensured high levels of pollination. Female crops ripened at the end of the dry season, when they attracted numerous frugivorous birds and dispersed seeds can germinate with the first reliable rains. Few syconia were produced by either sex during the rest of the year, but these were sufficient to maintain local pollinator populations. We suggest that this unique phenological strategy has evolved to maximize seed dispersal and establishment in this seasonal climate.

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Plasticity and diversity of the phenology of dioecious Ficus species in Taiwan

Cited by 20 publications

References 30 publications

Sexual specialization in phenology in dioecious Ficus benguetensis and its consequences for the mutualism

Sexual specialization in phenology in dioecious Ficus benguetensis and its consequences for the mutualism

Phenological Adaptations in Ficus tikoua Exhibit Convergence with Unrelated Extra-Tropical Fig Trees

Winter cropping in Ficus tinctoria: an alternative strategy

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