Plasmodium knowlesi and Wuchereria bancrofti: Their Vectors and Challenges for the Future

Abstract

Malaria and filariasis still continue to pose public health problems in developing countries of the tropics. Although plans are in progress for the elimination of both these parasitic vector borne diseases, we are now faced with a daunting challenge as we have a fifth species, Plasmodium knowlesi a simian malaria parasite affecting humans. Similarly in peninsular Malaysia, filariasis was mainly due to Brugia malayi. However, we now see cases of Wuchereria bancrofti in immigrant workers coming into the country. In order to successfully eliminate both these diseases we need to know the vectors involved and introduce appropriate control measures to prevent the diseases occurring in the future. As for knowlesi malaria it is still uncertain if human to human transmission through mosquito bites is occurring. However, P. knowlesi in human is not a rare occurrence anymore and has all the characteristics of a pathogen spreading due to changes in the ecosystem, international travel, and cross border migration. This has created a more complex situation. In order to overcome these challenges we need to revamp our control measures. This paper reviews the vectors of malaria and filariasis in Southeast Asia with special emphasis on P. knowlesi and W. bancrofti in Malaysia and their control strategies.

Selected Molecular Mechanisms Involved in the Parasite–Host System Hymenolepis diminuta–Rattus norvegicus

“…Finally, different metabolites secreted by parasites may also affect the functioning of the host organism. Proteolytic enzymes, including acetylcholine and histamine secreted by Enterobius vermicularis and F. hepatica, cause inflammation, inhibition of blood coagulation and dilation of blood vessels [2,3,4,5]. …”

Vector Biology and Malaria Transmission in Southeast Asia

“…cracens (both members of the An. leucosphyrus Subgroup) have been incriminated as vectors of P. knowlesi [101,102,103].…”

Global Distribution of the Dominant Vector Species of Malaria

“…The majority of the population in Myanmar live in areas with low malaria endemicity but significant numbers live in areas of moderate (5-40% prevalence) and high (>40% falciparum prevalence or >7% vivax prevalence) risk. There is increasing evidence that knowlesi malaria is transmitted from monkeys to humans in this region, particularly in the South, but the level of risk is currently unmeasured [82,83,134,135].…”