Phytoplankton Toxins and Their Potential Therapeutic Applications: A Journey toward the Quest for Potent Pharmaceuticals

Abstract

Phytoplankton are prominent organisms that contain numerous bioactive substances and secondary metabolites, including toxins, which can be valuable to pharmaceutical, nutraceutical, and biotechnological industries. Studies on toxins produced by phytoplankton such as cyanobacteria, diatoms, and dinoflagellates have become more prevalent in recent years and have sparked much interest in this field of research. Because of their richness and complexity, they have great potential as medicinal remedies and biological exploratory probes. Unfortunately, such toxins are still at the preclinical and clinical stages of development. Phytoplankton toxins are harmful to other organisms and are hazardous to animals and human health. However, they may be effective as therapeutic pharmacological agents for numerous disorders, including dyslipidemia, obesity, cancer, diabetes, and hypertension. In this review, we have focused on the properties of different toxins produced by phytoplankton, as well as their beneficial effects and potential biomedical applications. The anticancer properties exhibited by phytoplankton toxins are mainly attributed to their apoptotic effects. As a result, phytoplankton toxins are a promising strategy for avoiding postponement or cancer treatment. Moreover, they also displayed promising applications in other ailments and diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease, diabetes, AIDS, fungal, bacterial, schizophrenia, inflammation, allergy, osteoporosis, asthma, and pain. Preclinical and clinical applications of phytoplankton toxins, as well as future directions of their enhanced nano-formulations for improved clinical efficacy, have also been reviewed.

Toxic Effects and Tumor Promotion Activity of Marine Phytoplankton Toxins: A Review

“…In this regard, phytoplankton are gaining much attention [122]. Although phytoplankton toxins are poisonous to organisms, they are increasingly being investigated as a potential therapeutic for diseases including cancer, Alzheimer's disease, AIDS, diabetes, and others [123]. Oscillatoxin and its analogs from the cyanobacterium Lyngbya sp., such as oscillatoxin E and 30-methyloscillatoxin D, suppressed Kv1.5 expression in CHO cells with IC50 values of 0.79 ± 0.032 and 1.47 ± 0.138 M, respectively.…”

Sublethal effect of the toxic dinoflagellate Karlodinium veneficum on early life stages of zebrafish (Danio rerio)

“…In larvae exposed to ethanol (positive control for induction of apoptosis), 39% of the cells were in late apoptosis or dead; percentage only observed for larvae exposed to 2.69 μg L −1 KmTx-2 (equivalent) at the end of the experiment. Finally, it is suggested that the karlotoxin (KmTx) mode of action is dependent on the sterol composition of the target cell membranes (Pradhan and Ki 2022). Possibly, the ability of KmTx to cause the formation of pores in cell membranes would trigger apoptosis at sublethal concentrations (below EC 50) and necrosis at greater concentrations (above EC 50) (Deeds et al 2006(Deeds et al , 2015.…”

Antioxidant and chemotherapeutic efficacies of seaweed‐derived phlorotannins in cancer treatment: A review regarding novel anticancer drugs

“…In addition to the freshwater, the marine environment is also rich in algal biodiversity (Behera et al, 2020; Dash et al, 2020; Dash et al, 2021; Pradhan & Ki, 2022). These algae possess diverse groups of naturally active therapeutic phytochemicals with anticancer, antioxidant, anti‐inflammatory, antibiotic, antiviral, and antibacterial properties (Behera et al, 2021; Maharana et al, 2019; Malve, 2016; Pradhan, Bhuyan, Patra, Nayak, Behera, et al, 2022; Pradhan & Ki, 2022; Pradhan, Kim, Abassi, & Ki, 2022; Pradhan, Maharana, Bhakta, & Jena, 2021; Pradhan, Patra, Dash, et al, 2021; Pradhan, Patra, Dash, Satapathy, Nayak, et al, 2022). Naturally active therapeutic phytochemicals include proteins, vitamins, omega‐3 fatty acids, and other antioxidant compounds, such as carotenoids, phenolics, polyphenolics, and flavonoid compounds (Mohanty et al, 2020; Pradhan, Nayak, Bhuyan, Patra, Behera, et al, 2022; Pradhan, Nayak, Patra, Bhuyan, Behera, et al, 2022).…”

“…Beyond their nutritional benefits, seaweeds are a rich source of metabolites with bioactive (health‐promoting) properties, with over 15,000 new chemicals discovered recently (Gomez‐Zavaglia et al, 2019). In addition to the freshwater, the marine environment is also rich in algal biodiversity (Behera et al, 2020; Dash et al, 2020; Dash et al, 2021; Pradhan & Ki, 2022). These algae possess diverse groups of naturally active therapeutic phytochemicals with anticancer, antioxidant, anti‐inflammatory, antibiotic, antiviral, and antibacterial properties (Behera et al, 2021; Maharana et al, 2019; Malve, 2016; Pradhan, Bhuyan, Patra, Nayak, Behera, et al, 2022; Pradhan & Ki, 2022; Pradhan, Kim, Abassi, & Ki, 2022; Pradhan, Maharana, Bhakta, & Jena, 2021; Pradhan, Patra, Dash, et al, 2021; Pradhan, Patra, Dash, Satapathy, Nayak, et al, 2022).…”