Phyto-convection:the role of oceanic convection in primary production

Abstract

Typical sinking rates of marine phytoplankton cover a range extending from a few meters up to several hundred meters.per day. If it were not for a process which maintains plankton near the sea surface, in the euphotic layer, it would sink to depths of thousands of meters in the deep ocean during the winter season. Consequently, plankton would not be available for the next spring bloom. In shelf seas and coastal areas, as well as in fjords, deep sinking is prohibited by the proximity of the sea bed. The mechanism which reliably initiates a spring bloom is generally not considered in models of marine primary production. Such models generally rely on the assumption that a very small background concentration of plankton is available to initiate a bloom. Penetrative oceanic convection in the open ocean forms the perennial thermocline in winter in mid and high latitudes. The thermocline is situated at depths of several hundred meters. On a shelf, or in a fjord, convection may penetrate to the seabed, thereby affecting the entire water column. We argue that oceanic convection in winter accounts for the availability of plankton in the euphotic layer in spring. In support of this hypothesis a coupled phytoplankton convection model was developed. In this model plankton, i.e. resting spores and vegetative cells, is simulated by Lagrangian tracers moving within the flow predicted by the convection model. For each tracer a simple phytoplankton model predicts growth dependent on light conditions. Plankton spores sink with a prescribed velocity of 120 m d-'. Growing vegetative cells have a sinking rate of only 1 m d-' The model operates in a vertical ocean slice covering the water column. The width of the slice is typically 1 to 3 km, and it is resolved by an isotropic grid size of 5 m. The phyto-convection model was applied to a region in the Barents Sea shelf and to a coastal fjord in the north of Norway. It was run over winter/spring periods under realistic meteorological forcing. Tracers representing resting spores were initially introduced into a thin bottom layer of the model domain, which constitutes the worst case in terms of maximum sinking. The water column, apart from the bottom layer, was assumed to be void of plankton. In both cases convection eroded the initial stratification and dispersed plankton over the entire water column. The onset of a phytoplankton bloom coinciding with the establishment of a (weak) seasonal thermocline in spring was predicted, which agrees with observations from both regions considered. The simulations support the hypothesised role of oceanic convection in primary production.

Phytoplankton growth conditions during autumn and winter in the Irminger Sea, North Atlantic

“…As dense water sinks from the surface, less dense water must also rise from deep in the mixed layer to replace it. These upward vertical motions may play a role in maintaining the phytoplankton in the mixed layer for a longer period, and thus reduce the loss terms (Backhaus et al 1999).…”

“…; and (2) Why do these concentrations not fall to zero under extremely light-limited winter conditions? The maintenance of the over-wintering stock is an important problem, because it is this stock that provides the seed population for the spring bloom (Backhaus et al 1999). The spring bloom occurs every year in the North Atlantic, to a greater or lesser extent, and the initial growth rate of the bloom has been shown to be dependent on the pre-bloom phytoplankton composition (Waniek 2003).…”

Recruitment of coastal planktonic diatoms from benthic versus pelagic cells: Variations in bloom development and species composition

“…Offshore, frontal zones may also harbor vegetative cells as potential propagules (Smayda 2002). A few vegetative cells may even survive nutrient and grazing stress in an area, and these ''fugitive cells'' (Kilham and Kilham 1980) can grow and accumulate once favorable conditions return (Backhaus et al 1999, 2003). Alternatively, planktonic blooms can be initiated by the germination and growth of benthic resting stages.…”

Photoacclimation of natural phytoplankton communities

“…In situ light fields fluctuate on timescales ranging from seconds in near surface waters (Schubert et al 2001) to vertical mixing dynamics that range from hours to days (Denman & Gargett 1983, Backhaus et al 1999, D'Asaro 2008 to seasonal patterns in incident light. Phytoplankton respond to fluctuating light by altering their cellular chl and carbon content on time scales less than 1 h (Lewis et al 1984, Cullen & Lewis 1988, Havelková-Doušová et al 2004) and employ photoprotective mechanisms such as nonphotochemical quenching (Havelková-Doušová et al 2004, Miloslavina et al 2009, van de Poll et al 2010, Alderkamp et al 2013) that are active on timescales of microseconds to minutes.…”