Physiological Capacity and Training Routines of Elite Cross-Country Skiers: Approaching the Upper Limits of Human Endurance

Sandbakk, Øyvind; Holmberg, Hans‐Christer

doi:10.1123/ijspp.2016-0749

Cited by 138 publications

(213 citation statements)

References 41 publications

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“…Although the performance demands are well-simulated by HIT in the current study, the majority of training is LIT for both XC sit-skiers (unpublished results from the training diaries of the Norwegian XC sit-skiers) and their able-bodied counterparts (Tønnessen et al, 2014;Sandbakk and Holmberg, 2017). Here, the mean speed was 27% lower during LIT compared to HIT, with speed in the uphill, flat and downhill terrain being 29, 26, and 20% lower for LIT compared to HIT.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 56%

Development of a Framework for the Investigation of Speed, Power, and Kinematic Patterns in Para Cross-Country Sit-Skiing: A Case Study of an LW12 Athlete

Baumgart

Haugnes

Bardal

et al. 2019

Front. Sports Act. Living

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Objective: To develop a framework for the investigation of speed, power, and kinematic patterns across varying terrain in crosscountry (XC) sit-skiing, and to test this framework in a XC sit-skier of the LW12 class during high-(HIT) and low-intensity (LIT) endurance training. Methods: One XC sit-skiing athlete of the LW12 class with a single above-the-knee amputation was equipped with a GNSS enabled sports watch with integrated barometry and heart rate monitoring (peak heart rate: 195 beats•min −1), and an inertial measurement unit. After a warm-up, he performed two 20-m maximal speed tests on a flat and an uphill section to determine maximal speed and power, followed by skiing 5.75 km at both LIT and HIT in varying terrain. Results: 51, 28, and 21% of the time during HIT and 53, 28, and 19% of the time during LIT were spent in uphill, flat and downhill terrain, respectively. Maximal speed in the uphill and flat section was 4.0 and 6.2 m•s −1 , respectively, and the corresponding maximal power output 342 and 252 W. The % of maximal speed did not differ between the uphill and the flat section (HIT: 66 vs. 67%, LIT: 47 vs. 50%), whereas the % of maximal power output was lower in the uphill than flat section (HIT: 65 and 80%, LIT: 46 and 58%). Still, the absolute power output was slightly higher in the uphill than the flat section (HIT: 222 vs. 201 W, LIT: 156 vs. 145 W). Furthermore, cycle rate was significantly higher during HIT than LIT (60-61 vs. 45-55 cycles•min −1 , across all terrains, all p < 0.03), while cycle length was longer in the uphill terrain (3.0 vs. 2.6 m, p < 0.001). Furthermore, the % of peak heart rate was significantly higher in HIT than LIT (90 vs. 78, 85 vs. 67, and 88 vs. 66%, respectively, in the uphill, flat and downhill terrain, all p < 0.001). Conclusions: Here, we present a new integrative framework for future investigations of performance, technical and physical demands in XC sit-skiing. In this case study, the Baumgart et al. Framework for Investigating Para XC Sit-Skiing increase in speed from LIT to HIT was due to increases in cycle rate in all terrains, while cycle length was less affected. Although the absolute power output was slightly higher in the uphill compared to the flat section both for HIT and LIT, the athlete worked closer to his maximum power output in the flat section.

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 56%

Development of a Framework for the Investigation of Speed, Power, and Kinematic Patterns in Para Cross-Country Sit-Skiing: A Case Study of an LW12 Athlete

Baumgart

Haugnes

Bardal

et al. 2019

Front. Sports Act. Living

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“…These findings are in agreement with Rundell and Bacharach (1995), who showed that TTE during treadmill running and performance during a 1 km double-poling timetrial on snow correlated significantly with performance during a biathlon sprint race among men, whereas VO 2peak did not . In contrast, previous observations in XC skiing highlight VO 2peak as a key determinant of performance (Sandbakk and Holmberg, 2017). The reason for these somewhat conflicting findings are not known but could be explained by differences in the heterogeneity of groups in the different studies or different demands in XC skiing compared to biathlon.…”

Section: Laboratory Determinants Associated With XC Skiing Performancementioning

confidence: 70%

Analysis of a Biathlon Sprint Competition and Associated Laboratory Determinants of Performance

Luchsinger

Talsnes

Kocbach

et al. 2019

Front. Sports Act. Living

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Biathlon is an Olympic winter-sport where crosscountry (XC) skiing in the skating technique is combined with rifle shooting. In the biathlon sprint competition for men, three laps of 3.3-km are interspersed with a 5-shot shooting sequence in the prone and standing position. Our purpose was to investigate the contribution from overall XC skiing performance, the performance in different terrain sections and shooting performance to the overall biathlon sprint race performance, as well as the relationship to laboratory-measured capacities obtained during treadmill roller ski skating. Eleven elite male biathletes were tracked by a Global Positioning System (GPS) device and a heart rate (HR) monitor during an international 10-km biathlon sprint competition. Within a period of 6 weeks prior to the competition, physiological responses, and performance during submaximal and maximal treadmill roller skiing were measured. Stepwise multiple regression analysis revealed that XC skiing time, shooting performance, shooting time and range time explained 84, 14, 1.8, and 0.2% of the overall sprint race performance (all p < 0.01). Time in uphill, varied, and downhill terrains were all significantly correlated to the total XC skiing time (r = 0.95, 0.82, 0.72, respectively, all p < 0.05). Percent of maximal HR (HRmax) and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) during submaximal roller skiing, and time-to-exhaustion during incremental roller skiing correlated significantly with overall biathlon sprint race performance and overall XC skiing time (r = 0.64-0.95, all p < 0.05). In conclusion, XC skiing performance provided greatest impact on biathlon sprint performance, with most of the variance determined by XC skiing performance in the uphill terrain sections. Furthermore, the ability to roller ski with a low RPE and %HRmax during submaximal speeds, as well as time-to-exhaustion during incremental roller skiing significantly predicted biathlon performance. Such laboratory-derived measures may therefore be validly used to distinguish biathletes of different performance levels and to track progress of their XC skiing capacity.

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“…Because of a possible reduction in the fetus oxygen saturation, intensive training at altitude is not recommended during pregnancy (Entin and Coffin, 2004). However, since XC-skiers normally has a lower proportion of HIT during altitude (Sandbakk and Holmberg, 2017), the participant could follow approximately the same training plan as her team mates.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Training Characteristics During Pregnancy and Postpartum in the World’s Most Successful Cross Country Skier

Solli

Sandbakk

2018

Front. Physiol.

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This case-study investigated the training characteristics, physiological capacity, and body composition of the world’s most successful cross country skier during the 40-week pregnancy, and the 61-week postpartum. Training data was systemized by training form (endurance, strength, and speed), intensity [low- (LIT), moderate- (MIT), and high-intensity training (HIT)], and mode (running, cycling, and skiing/roller skiing). The training volume [mean ± standard deviation (median)] during pregnancy was 12.9 ± 7.3(10.0) h/week in the first- (weeks 1–12), 18.3 ± 2.9(18.0) h/week in the second- (weeks 13–28), and 8.8 ± 4.4(9.6) h/week in the third trimester (weeks 29–40). Endurance training time was distributed into 10.9 ± 6.2(9.9), 15.2 ± 2.3(15.6), and 7.6 ± 3.8(7.9) LIT and 0.4 ± 0.5(0.0), 1.3 ± 0.4(1.4), and 0.7 ± 0.6(0.8) h/week MIT during the three trimesters. Only 2.2 h of HIT was performed during the entire pregnancy. During the first two trimesters, the distribution of exercise modes were approximately the same as pre-pregnancy, but the amount of running was reduced during the third trimester. Training volume during the postpartum periods 1–4 was 6.6 ± 3.8(7.1) (PP1; weeks 1–6), 14.1 ± 3.4(14.3) (PP2; weeks 7–12), 10.6 ± 3.8(10.4) (PP3; weeks 13–18), and 13.6 ± 4.1(14.5) h/week (PP4; weeks 19–24), respectively. Training during PP3 and PP4 was interfered with two fractions in the sacrum, leading to decreased amount of running and MIT/HIT, compensated by increased amounts of cycling. Thereafter, training volume progressively approached the pre-pregnancy values, being 18.0 ± 3.9(18.7) h/week during the general preparation- (weeks 25–44), 17.6 ± 4.4(17.3) h/week during the specific preparation- (weeks 45–53), and 16.9 ± 3.5(17.2) h/week during the competition period (CP; weeks 54–61) leading up to the subsequent world championship. The oxygen uptake at the estimated lactate threshold (LT) decreased to 90% of pre-pregnancy values in the second trimester, but remained to ∼100% in PP3. Body weight and fat-% was higher, while lean body mass and bone mineral density was lower after delivery compared to pre-pregnancy. These measurements gradually changed and were back to ∼pre-pregnancy values during CP. This study indicates that high-level cross country skiers can tolerate high training loads during pregnancy. Although the participant had some postpartum setbacks in her training due to fractures in the sacrum, reduced overall training load, followed by a slower progression and utilization of alternative exercise modes, led to a successful return to competitions.

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Physiological Capacity and Training Routines of Elite Cross-Country Skiers: Approaching the Upper Limits of Human Endurance

Cited by 138 publications

References 41 publications

Development of a Framework for the Investigation of Speed, Power, and Kinematic Patterns in Para Cross-Country Sit-Skiing: A Case Study of an LW12 Athlete

Development of a Framework for the Investigation of Speed, Power, and Kinematic Patterns in Para Cross-Country Sit-Skiing: A Case Study of an LW12 Athlete

Analysis of a Biathlon Sprint Competition and Associated Laboratory Determinants of Performance

Training Characteristics During Pregnancy and Postpartum in the World’s Most Successful Cross Country Skier

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