Physical activity and brain plasticity in late adulthood: a conceptual and comprehensive review

Abstract

A growing body of evidence from neuroscience, epidemiology, and kinesiology suggests that physical activity is effective as both a prevention and treatment for cognitive problems throughout the lifespan. Given the expected increase in the proportion of older adults in most countries over the next 40 years, physical activity could be a low-cost and relatively accessible method for maintaining cognitive function throughout later life. Despite the emerging recognition of physical activity as a powerful method to enhance brain health, there is continued confusion from both the public and scientific communities about what the extant research has discovered about the potential for physical activity to improve neurocognitive health and which questions remain unanswered. In this review, we outline four overarching themes that provide a conceptual structure for understanding the questions that have been asked and have been addressed, as well as those that have yet to be answered. These themes are descriptive, mechanistic, applied, and moderating questions. We conclude from our review that descriptive questions have been the first and most thoroughly studied, but we have much yet to learn about the underlying mechanisms, application, and moderating factors that explain how and to what extent physical activity improves brain health

Scared Sick

“…Many psychosocial factors are implicated, including increased social contact from participation in group exercises (Cooney et al, 2013; discussed further below). Other non-mechanistic factors have been suggested as well, such as increased self-efficacy and enhanced self-concept as a result of exercise interventions (Erickson et al, 2013). Consistent with the feedback model of Jackson and Stafford (2009), the above factors also decrease FOC and provide another example in a very complex feedback cycle in which there are many opportunities for bi-directional interaction between FOC and health via exercise.…”

“…The link between mental health outcomes and physical activity is complex and bi-directional, and several nonexclusive mechanisms have been proposed to mediate the relationship (Erickson, Gildengers, & Butters, 2013;Mattson, 2012). Many studies support the argument that exercise has anti-depressant effects in older adults, yet the mechanism of action remains unclear.…”

Aerobic exercise ameliorates learning and memory deficits of aging rats induced by D-galactose via promoting SYP and BNDF expression in hippocampus

“…It is well documented that low BDNF expression in brain involved in the learning and memory deficits in the process of aging [12]. Available data in the literature indicate that regular aerobic exercise may promote BDNF release in budding and adult hippocampus [13][14][15], but few experiments focus on the effects of exercises on BDNF expression in aging hippocampus.…”

Central Glutamatergic-Purinergic System Importance in Brain/Neural Plasticity

“…Physical exercise advances adult neurogenesis by augmenting the synthesis of neurotrophins (compounds that promote the growth of neuronal survival), such as brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF1), and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) [14]. The CNS centers that exhibit the very large improvement in gray matter volume in reaction to physical exercise are the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus [15], whereas a moderate improvement occurs in the anterior cingulated cortex, parietal cortex, cerebellum, caudate nucleus, and nucleus accumbens [16]. The prefrontal cortex, caudate nucleus and anterior cingulated cortex are between the most important brain centers in the DA and NE systems that create to mental control [7] [16].…”

“…Physical exercise is associated with slower cortical neurodegeneration, better efficiency of the brain, and increased cognitive activity, and it has been argued that physical activity takes predominance of the neuronal brain's congenital capability for plasticity [16].…”