Phylogeography of the current rabies viruses in Indonesia

Abstract

Rabies is a major fatal zoonotic disease in Indonesia. This study was conducted to determine the recent dynamics of rabies virus (RABV) in various areas and animal species throughout Indonesia. A total of 27 brain samples collected from rabid animals of various species in Bali, Sumatra, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Java, and Flores in 2008 to 2010 were investigated. The cDNA of the nucleoprotein gene from each sample was generated and amplified by one-step reverse transcription-PCR, after which the products were sequenced and analyzed. The symmetric substitution model of a Bayesian stochastic search variable selection extension of the discrete phylogeographic model of the social network was applied in BEAST ver. 1.7.5 software. The spatial dispersal was visualized in Cartographica using Spatial Phylogenetic Reconstruction of Evolutionary Dynamics. We demonstrated inter-island introduction and reintroduction, and dog was found to be the only source of infection of other animals. Ancestors of Indonesian RABVs originated in Java and its descendants were transmitted to Kalimantan, then further to Sumatra, Flores, and Bali. The Flores descendent was subsequently transmitted to Sulawesi and back to Kalimantan. The viruses found in various animal species were transmitted by the dog.

Development and validation of an immunoperoxidase antigen detection test for improved diagnosis of rabies in Indonesia

“…Rabies is a lethal zoonotic disease that is endemic in 24 provinces situated across numerous islands within the Indonesian archipelago [ 1 ]. The disease presents a significant economic burden to the region due to costs associated with diagnosis, treatment and control programs.…”

“…Dog bites are responsible for transmission of rabies to humans in 99% of all mortalities and for 90% of post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) globally. Rabies was first reported in Indonesia in 1884 and is thought to be endemic in 24 of the country’s 34 provinces [ 1 ] where it causes 150 to 300 human fatalities annually [ 2 ]. Indonesian rabies isolates belong to Asian lineage within the classical rabies virus, lyssavirus genotype 1 [ 3 ].…”

Pemberantasan Rabies di Indonesia sebagai Upaya Mewujudkan Right to Life, Right to Health

“…Hal ini berarti bahwa HPR di Bali tertular dari HPR yang datang dari Kalimantan. 6,7 Terdapat beberapa indikator yang digunakan dalam memantau upaya pengendalian rabies yaitu: kasus Gigitan Hewan Pembawa Rabies (GHPR), kasus yang diberi vaksinasi post exposure treatment dengan Vaksin Anti Rabies (VAR) dan kasus yang meninggal karena Rabies (Lyssa) dan spesimen positif pada hewan. Penentuan suatu daerah dikatakan tertular rabies berdasarkan hasil pemeriksaan laboratorium hewan, dan kewenangan ini ditentukan oleh Kementerian Pertanian.…”

“…Penentuan suatu daerah dikatakan tertular rabies berdasarkan hasil pemeriksaan laboratorium hewan, dan kewenangan ini ditentukan oleh Kementerian Pertanian. 5,6 Penyebaran virus rabies di dalam tubuh hospes sulit dihentikan karena kecepatan penyebarannya tiga milimeter per jam. Terkait dengan hal itu, masa inkubasi rabies dapat mencapai 1 tahun tergantung dari lokasi gigitan.…”

Eradicate Rabies with Mass Parental Vaccination, Human Post-Exposure Prophylaxis, and Gene Therapy: A Systematic Review

“…The Flores's offspring transmitted 128 these RABVs viruses to Sulawesi and went back to Kalimantan. In Indonesia, the dog was the only source 129 of infection of other animals [18].…”