Phylogeny and divergence time estimation of Io moths and relatives (Lepidoptera: Saturniidae:Automeris)

Abstract

The saturniid moth genusAutomerisincludes 135 described species. Their geographic distribution ranges from the eastern half of North America to as far south as Peru.Automerismoths are cryptically colored and their forewings resemble dead leaves, with conspicuously colored, elaborate eyespots hidden on their hindwings. Despite their charismatic nature, the evolutionary history and relationships withinAutomerisand between closely related genera, remain poorly understood. In this study, we present the most comprehensive phylogeny ofAutomeristo date, including 80 of the 135 described species. We also incorporate two morphologically similar hemileucine genera,PseudautomerisandLeucanella, as well as a morphologically distinct genus,Molippa. We obtained DNA data from both dry-pinned and ethanol-stored museum specimens and conducted Anchored Hybrid Enrichment (AHE) sequencing to reconstruct a high-quality dataset for phylogenetic analysis. The resulting phylogeny supportsAutomerisas a paraphyletic genus, withLeucanellaandPseudautomerisnested within, with the most recent common ancestor dating back to 26 mya. This study lays the foundation for future research on various aspects ofAutomerisbiology, including anti-predator defense mechanisms, ecological adaptations, geographical distribution patterns, and potential drivers of speciation.