Phthalate esters on urban airborne particles: Levels in PM10 and PM2.5 from Mexico City and theoretical assessment of lung exposure

Abstract

Endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) from the environment are associated with reproductive abnormalities (i.e. decreased sperm concentration; increased endometriosis) and alterations of the cardiovascular system (i.e. increased blood pressure and risk of coronary disease). Some phthalates esters have been identified as EDCs, for which inhalation is considered as one of the routes of exposure. However, only little is known regarding inhalational exposure to EDCs via urban airborne particles. In the present study, we report the monthly concentration of 8 phthalate esters measured in PM and PM collected and recovered during 7 months in a highly populated area of Mexico City. Using the levels of PM and PM reported by the automatized network of environmental monitoring of Mexico City for the sampling site, we estimated exposure levels for people of different ages and gender. Two endocrine disrupting compounds, the phthalate esters DEHP and DnBP, were found on the particles in higher concentrations during the warmer months of the year. The highest concentration was reported for DEHP (229.7μg/g of particles) in PM collected in May 2013. After calculations of the DEHP concentration in the atmosphere, and using the respiratory flow rate, we determined males were potentially exposed to larger quantities of DEHP, reaching up to 18ng/8h in April 2013. Despite the concentrations of phthalates seem to be rather small, a comprehensive characterization of its presence is necessary in order to evaluate the overall exposure to these compounds, providing a clear view of exposure on children, adolescents and pregnant women.

Analysis of indoor particles and gases and their evolution with natural ventilation

“…In their study, TXIB, a plasticizer often used in vinyl products (eg, floor and wall coverings, hand tools), was detected in particles in over 50% of commercial buildings surveyed . Other plasticizers measured in indoor and outdoor chromatograms include several phthalate esters (dimethyl phthalate, diethyl phthalate, dibutyl phthalate, and others), which are commonly measured in indoor particles and gases, and 2‐ethylhexyl benzoate, a monobenzoate that has been reported as an additive to nitrile rubber as well as an ingredient in cosmetics and fragrances…”

“…Factor 1‐D from particle‐phase PMF results exhibits this trend as well (Figure ), reflecting gas‐to‐particle partitioning of these species as windows are opened. Though relative factor loadings may vary between denuded and non‐denuded measurements for a given compound, Factors 1‐D and 2‐D generally have contributions from personal care product ingredients (eg, isopropyl myristate and DEET), perfumes (eg, hedione and α‐cedrene), and plasticizers (eg, diethyl phthalate, dibutyl phthalate, and dimethyl phthalate loading into both indoor factors 1 and 2) . Carvone, which was primarily observed in non‐denuded indoor chromatograms, is an oxidized terpene that, like other terpenes, emits as a primary product from wood, paints, and scented indoor items, but also originates from gas‐phase oxidation of limonene .…”

“…Though relative factor loadings may vary between denuded and nondenuded measurements for a given compound, Factors and dimethyl phthalate loading into both indoor factors 1 and 2). [65][66][67][68][69] Carvone, which was primarily observed in non-denuded indoor chromatograms, is an oxidized terpene that, like other terpenes, emits as a primary product from wood, paints, and scented indoor items, but also originates from gas-phase oxidation of limonene. 132,133 Although the limonene-ozone pathway might contribute partly to carvone concentrations, we do not expect significant carvone production through this mechanism based on low observed limonene concentrations.…”

Population‐Based Study of Traffic‐Related Air Pollution and Obesity in Mexican Americans

“…Another major component of traffic‐related air pollution is PM 2.5 , and while PM 2.5 is considered to be toxic to the human endocrine system , the understanding of traffic‐related PM 2.5 on adult obesity remains limited. Further limitations in the literature appropriate to this study include the scarcity of research that evaluates air pollution and health among Mexican Americans.…”

Cell Death Effects of the Phthalate 2-Ethyl-1-Hexanol on Human Linfoblast Cells

“…Diethylhexyl phthalate is a common phthalate historically used for imparting flexibility to plastic products including medical devices, such as catheters, blood, and IV bags, among others [5]. The high use of this compound has led to it being detected in air, water, soil and in dust particles [6] and might be persistent in the environment due to a relative low biodegradability [7]. The degradation of DEHP can produce the 2-ethyl-1-hexanol (2-EH) metabolite ( Figure 1).…”