Phthalate Esters in Tap Water, Southern Thailand: Daily Exposure and Cumulative Health Risk in Infants, Lactating Mothers, Pregnant and Nonpregnant Women

Abstract

Human exposure to phthalate esters (PAEs) via drinking water has generated public health concerns due to their endocrine disruptive abilities. This study reports on the occurrence and fate of six PAEs in raw and tap water samples collected from provincial waterworks located in Songkhla Province, Southern Thailand. In addition, the daily exposure and cumulative health risk of susceptible populations to due drinking tap water were evaluated by using four different reference dose (RfDs) sources. The maximum concentrations of PAEs in raw water were between 1.68 and 4.84 and 0.52 and 1.24 µg/L in tap water. Moreover, the levels of PAEs in the tap water samples indicated the poor PAE removal efficiency of the conventional treatment process (59.9–69.1%). The contribution of water to the daily intake of PAEs did not exceed 0.37% in all the groups. Furthermore, both the individual and cumulative risk assessment showed negligible noncarcinogenic and antiandrogenic risk for all the groups. Nevertheless, the cumulative risk showed an increasing trend in the order of infants > lactating mothers > pregnant women > nonpregnant women, suggesting that infants are more vulnerable. In additional, the newly proposed RfDAA yielded higher hazard quotient and hazard index estimates, which indicates it is a more sensitive tool than other RfDs for the assessment of the individual and mixture risk of pollutants. The carcinogenic risk of DEHP was acceptable in every group. However, we recommend a future cumulative risk assessment of vulnerable groups considering their simultaneous exposure to all chemicals that have antiandrogenic effects via tap water.

Contaminant occurrence, distribution and ecological risk assessment of phthalate esters in the Persian Gulf

“…In line with our results, Kingsley et al showed that the total mean concentration of PAEs was higher than the criteria of 3 ug/L for PAEs suggested for the protection of fish by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) [36]. Okpara et al believe that PAEs are endocrine disrupting chemicals whose effects may alter the function of the endocrine system in humans [40]. These findings emphasize the evaluation of PAEs in different regions due to the environmental exposure of humans to these compounds and their carcinogenic risk.…”

Assessment of Xenoestrogens in Jordanian Water System: Activity and Identification

“…The relative estrogenicity of tap water (1.4 ± 0.9 ng/L) is lower than that reported in other countries [ 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 ]. According to reports, such concentrations do not constitute an immediate, acute health risk to the community [ 51 , 55 ].…”

Nontargeted Analysis Reveals a Broad Range of Bioactive Pollutants in Drinking Water by Estrogen Receptor Affinity–Mass Spectrometry

“…The higher removal efficiency of DIDPP in the water supply plants was attributable to its higher noctanol−water partition coefficient (log K ow of 9.86, calculated by EPISuite, KOWWIN v1.67) compared with those of TPHP (4.70) and EHDPP (6.30). The average concentrations of N,N′-diphenylurea (9.895, 0.363−26.17 Overall, while traditional monitoring of EDCs in aquatic environments has been restricted to specific categories, such as pharmaceuticals, 39 hormones, 40 phytoestrogens, 41,42 pesticides, 43 and plasticizers, 44 we could comprehensively find ERα-active chemicals and plausible ERα ligands across 13 categories including 18 pesticides, 4 pharmaceuticals and personal care products, 6 ultraviolet absorbents, 5 plasticizers, 1 surfactant, 2 food preservatives, 3 phytoestrogens, 2 antioxidants, 4 OPFRs, 1 dye, 1 acid−base indicator, 1 paint additive, and 3 BPA analogues in the drinking water and its source water in the major rivers of China using the biologydriven identification of bioactive chemicals. This study represents the first successful attempt at determining the antiestrogenic activity of the identified chemical, namely, DIDPP.…”