“…Recently, indications have been reported for the relevance of QED vacuum birefringence for optical polarimetry of a neutron star [36]. Other theoretical proposals for optical signatures of quantum vacuum nonlinearity have focused on photon-photon scattering in the form of laser-pulse collisions [37][38][39][40], interference effects [41][42][43][44], quantum reflection [45,46], photon merging [47][48][49][50][51], photon splitting [19,[52][53][54][55][56][57][58][59][60], and higher-harmonic generation from laser driven vacuum [61][62][63][64]. Finally, and perhaps most strikingly, strong electric fields can facilitate the spontaneous formation of real electron-position pairs from the QED vacuum via the Schwinger effect [2,14,15].…”